Sāhitya
SANSKRIT SĀHITYA (संस्कृत साहित्य)
Sanskrit literature is the symbol of the soul of India. This literature, created over 4500 years, is a glorious depiction of the emotions, imaginations, resolves and desires of its people and their wonderous land. Sanskrit literature is an ever-evolving ever-growing tradition, unprecedented in its richness and diversity. Its progress can be divided into four phases:
- Era of Genesis (2500 BCE to 1500 BCE),
- Era of Establishment or Assertion (1500 BCE to 500 BCE),
- Era of Prosperity (1000 BCE to 1200 CE)
- Era of Expansion (1200 CE – till date)
- Era of Genesis (2500 BCE to 1500 BCE) – marks the commencement of Vedic and Sanskrit literature. From the creation of the Vedic Mantra (मन्त्र), Saṁhitā (संहिता) and Brāhmaṇa (ब्राह्मण) treatises by seers to compilation of heritage through legends, stories and folklores, all occurred in this period.
- Era of Establishment or Assertion of Sanskrit literature (1500 BCE- 500 BCE) –
During this period, several prime significant texts like the Rāmāyaṇa (रामायण), Mahābhārata (महाभारत) and some Upaniṣad (उपनिषद्), the compositions of which had begun centuries earlier, came to prominence and were systematized in their prevailing forms. All schools of philosophy (Darśana (दर्शन)) reached their culmination. Timeless great litterateurs such as Kālidāsa (कालिदास) and Bhāsa (भास), established Sanskrit poetic and dramatic literature universally as a fine sublime literature. - Era of prosperity (1000 BCE to 1200 CE) – saw the growth of the philosophical thought process and scientific ideation. New genres of poetic literature, such as historical epic poetry, Rāga-kāvya (राग-काव्य), Śāstra-kāvya (शास्त्र- काव्य). Stotra- kāvya (स्तोत्र-काव्य) emerged in this period. These genres displayed remarkable synthesis of devotion, philosophy and poetry which is unparalleled in world literature till today.
- Era of expansion (1200 CE – till date) – witnessed the rise of new Indian languages. Sanskrit literature got connected with folklore and local literature. The genres of Kāvyaśāstra (काव्यशास्त्र) – literary criticism, Saundaryaśāstra (सौंदर्यशास्त्र) – aesthetics and other new styles which explored untouched emotions and with new imagery and experimentations, once again enriched the soil of Sanskrit literature. In the 19th and 20th centuries, by virtue of the Indian Renaissance, the National freedom movement and contact with European literature, new horizons of style and composition emerged in Sanskrit literature.
Sanskrit Sāhitya (संस्कृत साहित्य) or Fine Sanskrit literature can be broadly categorized as Mahākāvya (महाकाव्य) or epic poetry, Rūpaka (रूपक) or plays, Gadya kāvya (गद्य काव्य) or prose literature, Khaṇdakāvya (खण्डकाव्य) or small poems and Caṃpū (चंपू) literature.
Mahakāvya (महाकाव्य) – Epic Poetry
The oldest compositions of Sanskrit Sāhitya or fine literature after the Vedic literature is Mahākāvya (epic poetry) or Kāvya (काव्य) i.e., poetry. It would not be out of place to assume that the Sanskrit kāvya literature though highly stylized, had its origin in two great and outstanding epics, the Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata.
Besides being compositions of the nature of Itihāsa (इतिहास) and Purāṇa (पुराण), Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata are also ārṣa (आर्ष) epics or scriptures composed by sages or ṛṣis (ऋषि) and upajīvya (उपजीव्य) epics, that on which one can earn one’s livelihood, usually by narrating or singing stories from these epics.
Every significant poet of Sanskrit was influenced by these two prime epics and there emerged innumerable subsequent compositions based on the Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata. Rāmāyaṇa was Ādikāvya (आदिकाव्य), the first composition in the category of non-Vedic or Loukika (लौकिक) (popular) literature and Vālmīki (वाल्मीकि), its composer, became the Ādikavi (आदिकवि), the first poet. Vālmīki put this popular narrative in a format and made it immortal.
The writing of creative or fine Sanskrit literature started in ~500 BCE, with the commencement of the composition of Rāmāyaṇa and subsequently Mahābhārata. The Mahābhārata comprising of 18 chapters is one of the world’s longest epics. Composed by Vedavyāsa (वेदव्यास), Mahābhārata showcases genres of prose, poetry, and drama rich in its diversity of characters, emotions, and narration. Encased in it is the spiritual message of the Bhagavad Gītā (भगवद् गीता).
In the Post ārṣa epic period, there came a galaxy of poets. The most prominent among them were Aśvaghoṣa (अश्वघोष), Kālidāsa (कालिदास), Bhāravi (भारवि), Māgha (माघ) and Śrīharṣa (श्रीहर्ष), collectively known as Pañca Mahākavi (पञ्च महाकवि) or five Great Poets.
Aśvaghoṣa (अश्वघोष)
Aśvaghoṣa (~ 100 CE) is considered as the first Mahākavi of the Sanskrit Kāvya literature and predecessor of Kālidāsa. His most famous works include Buddhacarita (बुद्धचरित), Saundarananda (सौन्दरनन्दं) and Śāriputraprakaraṇa (शारिपुत्रप्रकरण). Aśvaghoṣa had the exceptional ability to elucidate intricate concepts through lucid verses. His analogies, selected from daily life events, are richly infused with poetic expression, free of complicated and rigid scholarly dogma. Born a Brahmin and converted to Buddhism, he strongly condemned the caste system by drawing examples from the Vedas and Mahābhārata to demonstrate the ‘sārvabhauma’ (सार्वभौम) (universal) sentiment.
Kālidāsa (कालिदास)
Kālidāsa (320 CE – 480 CE) is considered as the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist of all times. He aimed at portraying the staunch truth of human life on the rich canvas of literature. Of all the works of Kālidāsa, seven are available today – three dramas – Abhijñānaśākuntalam (अभिज्ञानशाकुन्तलम्) (Recognition of Shakuntala), Mālavikāgnimitram (मालविकाग्निमित्रम्) (Malavika and Agnimitra), and Vikramōrvaśīyam (विक्रमोर्वशीयम्) (Urvashi won by Valour), two epic poems – Raghuvaṃśam (रघुवंशम्) (Dynasty of Raghu) and Kumārasambhava (कुमारसम्भव) (Birth of Kumara ) and two Khaṇḍakāvya (खण्डकाव्य) or small poems- Ṛtusaṃhāra (ऋतुसंहार) (nice garland of seasons) and Meghadūta (मेघदूत) (Cloud Messenger).
He excels in his ability to use similes drawn from life and nature to convey the nobility, profundity, and richness of human emotions. Kālidāsa was a rare genius who possessed both – the fluency and intellect to weave the beauty of nature and human feeling with ingenious similes. The term उपमा कालिदासस्य (Upamā Kālidāsasya – Kālidāsa the Genius of similies) was coined to describe his talent.
Bhāravi (भारवि)
Bhāravi (~ 600 CE – 680 CE) was the foremost successor of Kālidāsa. Poets up to the period of Kālidāsa emphasized expressing emotion with grace and lyrical beauty. His most famous work is ‘Kirātārjunīya (किरातार्जुनीय)’ (Arjun and the hunter). Bhāravi is known for the gravity and grandeur of the purport in his poetic expressions. With his practical approach to poetic exposition, he ensures that the verses were well arranged with no ambiguity and loss of meaning or context.
Māgha (माघ)
The composer of the Mahakāvya ‘Śiśupālavadha (शिशुपालवध)’, Māgha (700 CE) ranks among the prominent Mahākavis. This epic is composed on the lines of ‘Kirātārjunīya’. Māgha employs a similar but more extensive style of skilful configuration of words and figures of speech and surpasses Bhāravi. He is said to have all the three special attributes put together, one of which was individually possessed by the three great poets or Mahākavis, eg., Kālidāsa, Bhāravi and Daṇḍin (दण्डिन्). This aspect is manifested in the following verse composed by some literary critic:
The excellence of Kālidāsa is in use of simile (उपमा), of Bhāravi is gravity of meaning (अर्थगौरवम्); Daṇḍin’s is the beauty in setting words(पदलालित्य) whereas Māgha possesses all the three qualities.
Śrīharṣa (श्रीहर्ष)
Śrīharṣa was a poet and philosopher in the court of King Jayachandra (जयचन्द्र) around first half of the 12th century CE. His epic poem ‘Naiṣadhīya-carita (नैषधीय-चरित)’, one of the excellent compositions of Sanskrit literature, is the enchanting story of Nala (नल) and Damayantī (दमयन्ती) taken from the Mahābhārata. His brilliance is seen in the arrangement of figures of speech, proper investment of sentiment, emotion and imagination, command over grammar and sophisticated combination of philosophical and classical knowledge. His works, as is commonly believed, are not for the ordinary but for scholars or men of learning.
Besides these great names as the composers of epics, there were several other poets, such as Kashmiri poet Maṅkha (मङ्ख), Hariścandra (हरिश्चन्द्र) , Vāgbhaṭa (वाग्भट) (all ~1200 CE), Amaracandra (अमरचन्द्र), Devaprabhasūri (देवप्रभसूरि), Vāmanabhaṭṭabāṇa (वामनभट्टबाण) (all ~1300 CE), in 1500 CE Sakalakīrti (सकलकीर्ति) and Jinadāsa (जिनदास) wrote Harivaṁśa (हरिवंश) and in 1600 CE Śubhacandra (शुभचन्द्र) composed Pāṇḍavapurāṇa (पाण्डवपुराण) also known as Jaina Mahābhārata (जैन महाभारत). Cidambara (चिदम्बर) (1586-1614) composed an epic Rāghava-yādava-pāṇḍavīya (राघव-यादव-पाण्डवीय). In this spectacular creation Cidambara depicted Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata and Bhāgavata (भागवत), simultaneously interpreting it in three ways by using triple-entendre paronomasia or a figure of speech known in Sanskrit as Śleṣa (श्लेष).
After this period up to the contemporary era the writing of epics receded to a great deal. Yet, in the last 80 years considerable amount of compositions, including in some of the new and innovative genres in Sanskrit have been done.
Rūpaka (रूपक) - Sanskrit Drama Literature
Rupaka is that genre of literature which can be presented on stage in the form of drama or play and is written in prose interspersed with several verses. There are 10 types of Rūpakas. Details of all these Rūpakas can be alluded in the Nāṭyaśāstra (नाट्यशास्त्र) by Bharatamuni (भरतमुनि) (200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary between 500 BCE and 500 CE). The Nāṭyaśāstra is a detailed treatise on the aspects of theatre art forms and has for centuries been a prestigious and influential text of classical Sanskrit theatre. Some scholars have even chosen to call it the fifth Veda. There are around 650 rūpakas available till date.
The Nāṭyaśāstra is also one of the most influential texts to deal with the concept of Rasa (रस). Rasa is metaphysical concept in Sanskrit literature which denotes the aesthetic essence of any literary, musical, or visual art form which evokes an emotion but cannot be perfectly described.
– नाट्यशास्त्रम् १/१२१
Human behavior which is intimately connected with happiness and sadness, when integrated and depicted by physical and other forms of acting, is called Nāṭya (drama).
Nāṭya (नाट्य) (drama/theatre) has been as an ever-present element of human life since the very beginning. It evolved with enactment and depiction of episodes/stories from the Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata, and Purāṇa (पुराण). The Sūta (सूत) of the Vedic era became the Sūtradhāra (सूत्रधार) (narrator), Granthika (ग्रन्थिक) (relater/narrator) read these stories and Kuśīlava (कुशीलव) (wandering bards) sang them. In this backdrop emerged works of imminent dramatists (Nāṭakakāra (नाटककार)) such as Bhāsa’s (भास), (150 BCE – 250 CE) Svapnavāsavadattā (स्वप्नवासवदत्ता), Aśvaghoṣa’s (~100 CE) Śāriputraprakaraṇa (शारिपुत्रप्रकरण), Kālidāsa’s (~ 4th c. CE) Abhijñānaśākuntalam (अभिज्ञानशाकुन्तलम्), Śūdraka’s (शूद्रक) Mṛcchakaṭikā (मृच्छकटिका) (period not known), Harṣa’s (हर्ष) Ratnāvalī (रत्नावली) (606-648 CE), Viśākhadatta’s (विशाखदत्त) Mudrārākṣasa (मुद्राराक्षस) (second half of 600 CE), Bhavabhūti’s (भवभूति) Uttararāmacarita (उत्तररामचरित) (~700 CE). They were followed by prominent playwrights such as Bhaṭṭanārāyaṇa (भट्टनारायण) (~700 CE) and Murāri (मुरारि) (early 9th c. CE), Rājaśekhara (राजशेखर), guru of Rājā Mahendrapāla (राजा महेन्द्रपाल) (893-907 CE), Diṅnāga (दिङ्नाग) (1000 CE), Jayadeva (जयदेव) (1200 CE), Rāmacandra Dīkṣita (रामचन्द्र दीक्षित) (1700 CE). After this period there were a few sporadic compositions. Bhārata-Vijaya- Nāṭakam (भारत-विजय-नाटकम्) by Mathurā Prasāda Dīkṣita (मथुरा प्रसाद दीक्षित) (1878 CE – 1966 CE) is especially important in this category.
Bhāsa, Kālidāsa, Śūdraka and Bhavabhūti are the greatest names in the history of Sanskrit drama. From Bhāsa to modern day Sanskrit drama, literature is replete with scintillating gems of style and compositions.
Besides, those enumerated above, several scholars of poetics wrote commentaries on Nāṭyaśāstra and poetics. Significant among these are Harsha (606-648), Udbhaṭa (उद्भट) (800 CE), Mātṛgupta (मातृगुप्त) (842 CE), Śaṅkuka (शंकुक) (842 CE), Bhaṭṭanāyaka (भट्टनायक) (900 CE), and Abhinavagupta’s Abhinavabhāratī ((अभिनवगुप्त, अभिनवभारती), which is the only commentary on Nāṭyaśāstra available today.
Prose literature
The commencement of prose literature is considered to have taken place right during Vedic period. The oldest form of prose exists in Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेद) and Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda (कृष्ण यजुर्वेद). Some portions of Mahābhārata and Purāṇa contained prose sections. Yāska’s (यास्क) Nirukta (निरुक्त) (500 BCE), Patañjali’s (पतञ्जलि) Mahābhāṣya (महाभाष्य) (200 BCE), etc. are the ideal examples of Sanskrit prose noted for their elegant style of writing. There is a great tradition of encyclopaedias and dictionaries in Sanskrit. Nighaṇṭus (निघण्टु) (glossary of Vedic words explained by Yāska in his Nirukta) and Niruktas are the oldest forms of dictionaries and vocabulary. Additionally, there is profuse literature on diverse subjects such as Kāmasūtra (कामसूत्र) (200 or 300 BCE) on the science of love or erotic science, Cāṇakya’s (चाणक्य) (400 BCE) Arthaśāstra (अर्थशास्त्र), an extremely authentic account of governance and polity and medical texts such as Carakasaṁhitā (चरकसंहिता) (~300 BCE) and Suśrutasaṁhitā (सुश्रुतसंहिता) (~400 BCE).
Gadyakāvya (गद्यकाव्य)
As compared to poetic literature less work was done in prose literary style. Sanskrit Gadyakāvya can be classified as two types – ‘Kathā (कथा)’ and ‘Ākhyāyikā (आख्यायिका)’. Kathā is a purely fictional or imaginary story where the hero or any other person can narrate the story. ‘Ākhyāyikā’ is based on historical narrative where the narrator is the hero or main character. Prominent Gadyakāvya works are Subandhu’s (सुबन्धु) (700 CE) Vāsavadattā (वासवदत्ता), Bāṇabhaṭṭa’s (बाणभट्ट) (700 CE) Kādambarī (कादंबरी) and Harṣacarita (हर्षचरित), and Daṇḍin’s (दण्डिन्) (700-800 CE) Daśakumāracarita (दशकुमारचरित).
Prose writers belonging to later period are Dhanapāla (धनपाल), Vāmana bhaṭṭa bāṇa (वामन भट्ट बाण) (~1000 CE) among many others.
Aṁbikādatta Vyāsa’s (अंबिकादत्त व्यास) (1858 -1900 CE) Śivarāja Vijaya (शिवराज विजय) has a special status among the modern prose compositions. This composition narrates the revolt led by Chhatrapati Śivājī (छत्रपति शिवाजी) against Mughal empire’s rule and atrocities. This tale of history is considered to have heralded a new era of Sanskrit literature with it engaging narration, exciting visual description, and sophisticated use of figures of speech and poetic expression.
Besides these compositions are also available in the form of Didactic fables (Nītikathā (नीतिकथा)) and Popular tales (Lōkakathā (लोककथा)). Nītikathās deliver the practical teachings through short, pithy stories with animals and birds as characters. Pañcatantra (पञ्चतन्त्र) and Hitopadeśa (हितोपदेश) are works on Nītikathās. Lōkakathās are popular tales where the aim is to entertain, and the characters are humans. Bṛhatkathāmañjarī (बृहत्कथामञ्जरी) is an ancient collection of such folktales.
The tradition of essay writing in Sanskrit commences in 1900 CE. The first essay writer was Pandit Hrishikesh Shastri Bhattacharya. Collection of his essays have been compiled in a book entitled Prabandhamañjarī (प्रबन्धमञ्जरी). There are several others such as Pandit Kshamarao (1900 CE), etc.
Khaṇḍakāvya (खण्डकाव्य) - small poems
Khaṇḍakāvya or Gīti kāvya (गीति काव्य) are smaller poems as compared to Mahakāvyas. They handle a single topic or subject. In composition of Khaṇḍakāvya, the poet is free of the rules of poetic composition. The form of expression is individualistic and independent in their styles of composition, making them pleasant and popular. The doyen of composers of this format of literature was indeed, Kālidāsa. His Meghadūta and Ṛtusaṃhāra are very widely known compositions.
Ṛtusaṃhāra, Kālidāsa’s earliest composition, describes the six seasons through the experiences of two lovers in each of the seasons. The poem echoes with his pervading love and accuracy of observation of all aspects of nature. Meghadūta, a small poem is the story of a Yakṣa (यक्ष) trying to send a message to his lover through a cloud. With Meghadūta, Kālidāsa created his own genre of poetry. It is one of Kālidāsa’s most popular poems and truly incomparable in its lyrical sweetness and intricacies of emotions.
Some other small poems are Ghaṭakarparakāvya (घटकर्परकाव्य) by Ghaṭakarpara (घटकर्पर), Nītiśataka (नीतिशतक), Śṛṁgāraśataka (श्रृंगारशतक) and Vairāgyaśataka (वैराग्यशतक) by Bhartṛhari (भर्तृहरि) (700 CE), Amaruśataka (अमरुशतक) by Amaru (अमरु) (before 1300 CE), Vikramāṅkadevacarita (विक्रमांकदेवचरित) by Bilhaṇa (बिल्हण) (1076-1127 CE), Gītagovinda (गीतगोविन्द) by Jayadeva (जयदेव) (1200 CE), Gāthāsaptaśatī (गाथासप्तशती) by Govardhanācārya (गोवर्धनाचार्य) (1200 CE), Pavanadūta (पवनदूत) by Dhoyī (धोयी) (1220 CE), Bhāminīvilāsa (भामिनीविलास) by Jagannātha paṇḍitarāja (जगन्नाथ पण्डितराज) (1700 CE). There are several other small love- poems, religious and devotional poems. In this category there are collections of some beautiful verses entitled as Subhāṣita (सुभाषित).
There is another segment of historical poetry. Among these composers there were Bāṇabhaṭṭa (बाणभट्ट) (700 CE), Vākpatirāja (वाक्पतिराज) (700CE), Padmagupta (पद्मगुप्त) or Parimala (परिमल) (1005 CE), Kashmiri poet Bilhaṇa (1085 CE), also Kashmiri poet Kalhaṇa (कल्हण) (1200 CE). Kalhaṇa’s Rājataraṅgiṇī (राजतरङ्गिणी) is a famous historical composition.
Caṃpū (चंपू) Literature
Caṃpū is a form of literature where poetry and prose are interwoven in the form of an elaborate composition with a coherent plot by a single author, wherein the same subject continues through alternating prose and verse.
The verse is not specifically reserved for expressing a specific or important idea but used along with prose for narration or description. While prose is the natural form of expression, Sanskrit literature particularly uses verses to emphasize a certain point. There is some resemblance in drama and Caṃpū literature as both have prose and verses intermingled. However, Caṃpū is narrative in form whereas drama is conversational. Caṃpū composers have dealt with a variety of themes and subjects from flora fauna to human civilisation.
From the evidences, it appears that Caṃpū-like form of literature is ancient. Jātakamālā (जातकमाला) (~4 th c. CE) is the earliest available work having close similarity to Caṃpū style and can be treated as an independent Caṃpū. The first known Caṃpū work dates to 959 CE, the Nalacampū (नलचम्पू) by Trivikramabhaṭṭa (त्रिविक्रमभट्ट). A few years later, the Ādipurāṇa (आदिपुराण) and Pāmpabharata (पाम्पभरत) of Pāmpa (पाम्प) (941 CE) composed in Kannada in 941 CE. Somadevasūri’s (सोमदेवसूरि) Yaśastilakacampū (यशस्तिलकचम्पू) (1000 CE) is another literary masterpiece. The maximum number of Pariṇayacaṃpū (परिणयचंपू) have been composed during the period of Kṛṣṇadeva (कृष्णदेव), King of Vijayanagara (विजयनगर) (1509-1530 CE). Some prominent works include Bhaiṣmīpariṇayacampū (भैष्मीपरिणयचम्पू) by Ratnakheṭa Dīkṣita (रत्नखेट दीक्षित). Rāmāyaṇacaṃpū (रामायणचंपू) by King of Dhārā nagarī, Bhoj (धारा नगरी, भोज) (1018-1063 CE).
In Kerala, Caṃpūs are popularly known as Prabandha which means ‘strung together in beautiful form’. It must have come traditionally from the Cākyār (चाक्यार्) (actors). Caṃpūs have been composed in Telugu, Prākṛta (प्राकृत), Māgadhī (मागधी), Hindi and Marathi. However, Caṃpū did not receive much credence outside South India in general and Kerala in particular.
Conclusion
The inclusion of all genres and works, is beyond the purview of this narrative. The sheer volume of Sanskrit literature is monumental. Pages can be filled with just the names and genres and sub-genres of the compositions and yet the full import of its magnitude could not be appreciated. One can only marvel at the creative and ingenious use of expression and rhythm to create masterpieces ranging from brilliant to elegant, copious to pithy, overt to subtle, suited for every mood and taste. The great poets and composers with their command of the language and dexterity in its usage have created treasures which have enriched the world literature and remain unparalleled and timeless.
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