VEDA (वेद)
VEDAS (वेद)
Vedas assume a very prominent place in the cultural ethos of India. The word Veda is a derivative of Sanskrit root of the verb vid (विद्) means ‘to know’. Gramatically and etymologically the word Veda can be comprehended in four ways:
- विदन्ति जानन्ति
- विद्यन्ते भवन्ति
- विन्दन्ते लभन्ते
- विन्दन्ति विचारयन्ति सर्वे मनुजा सत्यविद्यां यैर्येषु वा तथा विद्वान्सश्च भवन्ति ते वेदाः
This means – through Vedas human society may attain the knowledge, perceive the reality, or get engaged in the quest of reality.
Veda means ‘knowledge’ or sacred knowledge, holy learning, or scriptures of followers of the Sanātana dharma (सनातन धर्म). Yāska (यास्क) – author or Nirukta (निरुक्त) has defined Veda as something through which one can attain knowledge.
According to Āchārya Sāyaṇa (आचार्य सायण), a commentator on Vedas, the Mantra (मंत्र) and Brāhmaṇa (ब्राह्मण) scriptures are Vedas:
Apauruṣeya (अपौरुषेय) Vedas
According to the strict orthodox Sanātana religio-cultural canon, Vedas have been described as apauruṣeya or ‘not human compositions’ being directly revealed by the Supreme Being, Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) to the sages. The sages experienced and perceived these revelations and subsequently rendered them into the mantra format. Sages to whom the hymns of the Vedas are ascribed, are, therefore, called Draṣtāraḥ (द्रष्टार:) or seers and not Kartāraḥ (कर्तार:) or Sraṣtāraḥ (स्रष्टारः) or composers. The expression apauruṣeya means that Vedas were not written by any person and they have emerged intuitively as the outcome of the extraordinary capabilities inherent in Ṛṣis (ऋषि) who could comprehend, perceive and interpret the revelations with the help of unmatched Pratibhā (प्रतिभा) or talent.
Vāchika (वाचिक) or Oral Tradition
Vedas are not a single literary work, but a whole great literature, which emerged in the course of many centuries. In Gopatha (गोपथ) Brāhmaṇa (of Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेद)) there is a mention of possibilities of several Vedas being composed as per the requirements of various eras and ethnical groups across various regions in India.
Vedas were studied, learnt and recited by a selected class of people and were passed on from generation to generation by oral tradition, till they were documented centuries later. Disciples would listen to Vedic mantras from the Guru, learn them by heart, and in their own turn pass them orally to their disciples. This is the reason why Vedas are also known as Śruti (श्रुति). Śruti i.e., ‘what is heard or revealed’, as distinguished from Smṛti (स्मृति), i.e. what is remembered or is the work of human origin.
For more than 4,500 years, Vedas were securely protected through the Vāchika or oral tradition of ‘saying and hearing’. This must be an exclusive example of this kind of endeavour in the history of any human culture. In due course of time, with the advent of science of writing they were calligraphed. Traditionally Vedavyāsa (वेदव्यास) is credited with the compilation of Vedas.
Śākhās (शाखा) or Branches of Vedas
The hymns of the Vedic Saṁhitās (संहिता) were transmitted orally through various śākhās or faculties of learning. At any point of time there were many śākhās. It is evident from research that total number of śākhās is no less than 1130. It is significant that there is not much difference between the Saṁhitā of one particular śākhā from the Saṁhitā of another śākhā. Original scriptures are the same. Every śākhā had its own Saṁhitā, Brāhmaṇa, Āraṇyaka (आरण्यक) and Upaniṣad (उपनिषद्).
Different traditions emerged on the basis of nature of teaching of text in terms of pronunciation, and contents of the hymns. In texts of different śākhās, the numbers of mantras differed. The śākhā text which was being taught in that particular family or lineage of a Ṛṣi (ऋषि) is named after that Ṛṣi (ऋषि). Traditionally, at the time of performing Sandhyā (संध्या) or Pūjā (पूजा), one had to recite the name of his śākhā along with his name and other details.
Four Vedas
Originally there were only three Vedas – Ṛgveda (ऋग्वेद), Yajurveda (यजुर्वेद) and Sāmaveda (सामवेद). These were also collectively called trayī (त्रयी) “the sacred triad”. The Atharvaveda was composed at a later date and was subsequently added to them. The four Vedas deal with – Jnāna (ज्ञान) (absolute knowledge), Karma (कर्म) (action), Upāsana (उपासना) (communion with God) and Vijñaya (विज्ञान) (science).
Let us understand each of the four Vedas –
Ṛgveda
Ṛgveda is oldest of the four Vedas, at least about 4500 years old (~2500 BCE) and the most sacred book of ancient Indians. It comprises of cosmogony, meaning how the universe came into being and cosmology, i.e. creation of universe. The Ṛgveda is undoubtedly the earliest, archaic and pivotal body of Vedic literature.
Structure/Division of Ṛgveda:
The division of Ṛgveda is done based on Aṣṭaka krama (अष्टक क्रम or sequence of aṣṭakas) and Maṇḍala krama (मण्डल क्रम, sequence of maṇḍalas).
(a) Aṣṭaka Krama: Aṣṭaka means a group of eight or eight-fold. One aṣṭaka consists of eight chapters. The aṣṭaka sequence consists of 64 adhyāyas (अध्याय, chapters). There are eight aṣṭakas in the entire Ṛgveda. Aṣṭakas have been further divided into vargas (वर्ग). Each varga comprises of 1 to 9 mantras (मन्त्र). This division was done for convenience of learning.
(b) Maṇḍala Krama: The Ṛgveda is organised into ten maṇḍalas. Maṇḍala is a particular division of Ṛgveda. Every maṇḍala consists of subdivisions, sections or chapters called anuvāka (अनुवाक). Each anuvāka is comprised of several sūktas (सूक्त=सुष्ठु उक्तम्). Sūkta means a good or wise saying. According to Kātyāyana’s (कात्यायन) reckoning, Ṛgveda consists of 85 anuvākas. There are around 1028 sūktas in all the anuvākas. These sūktas contain around 10528 mantras in all.
Vaśiṣṭha (वशिष्ठ), Viśvāmitra (विश्वामित्र), Atri (अत्रि), Bharadvāja (भरद्वाज), Kaṇwa (कण्व), Gṛtsamada (गृत्समद), Vāmadeva (वामदेव), Aṅgirasa (अङ्गिरस), etc., are the chief perceivers or ṛṣis in Ṛgveda. The contents of Ṛgveda are extremely comprehensive and all-pervading. These include dharma, philosophy, karmakāṇda (कर्मकाण्ड) (ceremonial acts and sacrificial rites) and several other subjects of everyday life. They are in the form of sūktas of eulogising deities, philosophical sūktas, aihika (ऐहिक) or laukika (लौकिक) i.e., temporal, worldly or mundane sūktas, donation sūktas, and dialogue sūktas. Besides these, there are sūktas related to tantra (तंत्र) and magic (jādūṭōṇā, जादूटोणा). Although magic and sorcery is a subject matter of Atharvaveda, about 30 sūktas of Ṛgveda contain such subjects. There are ākhyāna (आख्यान, legend) sūktas. The style of composition of Ṛgveda is replete with sublime poetic beauty.
Ṛgvedic poets are extremely cautious and aware about the linguistic strength of Ṛgveda. They believe that the thoughtful scholars of this country have rendered the speech (Vāṇī, वाणी) in the purest form by sieving it with the sieve of mind, just like sieving flour.
Śākhās of Ṛgveda:
Ancient literature mentions 21 śākhās of Ṛgveda. In Patañjali Mahābhāṣya (पतञ्जलि महाभाष्य) it is said: ekaviṁśatidhā bāhvr̥cyam (एकविंशतिधा बाह्वृच्यम्). Today, even the names of these 21 śākhās are not known, let alone availability of text of all these śākhās. Names of only five śākhās are known: Śākala (शाकल), Vāṣkala (वाष्कल), Śāṅkhāyana (शाङ्खायन), Maṇḍūkāyana (मण्डूकायन) and Āśvalāyana (आश्वलायन). Out of these, only Śākala śākhā is available. Brāhmaṇas (ब्राह्मण) and Upaniṣad (उपनिषद्) of Śāṅkhāyana and Āśvalāyana śākhās are available, but their Saṁhitās (संहिता) are extinct.
Chandas (छन्दस्)
Eleven types of chandas or metres have been used in Ṛgveda. Out of these, seven metres have been used quite frequently: Triṣṭubh (त्रिष्टुभ्), Gāyatrī (गायत्री), Jagatī (जगती), Anuṣṭup (अनुष्टुप्), Uṣṇik (उष्णिक्), Paṅkti (पङ्क्ति) and Bṛhatī (बृहती).
Period of Ṛgveda
After having taken into account all the available evidences and research, the period of Ṛgveda can be affirmed to approximately 2500 BCE.
Significance of Ṛgveda
The introduction of Ṛgveda to the world rendered open new vistas of knowledge. Until then European intellectuals and linguists believed that Greek and Latin were the most ancient languages. With the introduction of Ṛgveda and Vedic literature to the world it was admitted that Vedic or Sanskrit language is even more ancient than Greek and Latin. According to Max Muller, Vedas have filled the void which no other literary creation in any of the languages, in the history of the world, could fill. According to Max Muller, Vedas have ushered us into an era which has no evidence of existence. Vedas also take us back to the generation, uncertain, gloomy and inaccurate description of which can be remotely done on the basis of inference and imagination. It is due to vedas only that we have fairly good depiction of that generation.
Yajurveda
Yajurveda is second of the four Vedas, and is a collection of sacred texts, the main subject of which is yājñika vidhi (याज्ञिक विधि) or sacrificial procedure. There are two forms of Yajurveda:
- Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda (कृष्णयजुर्वेद) – contains a combination of mantras in poetic form and their commentaries in prose and
- Śukla Yajurveda (शुक्लयजुर्वेद) – contains the mantras in poetic form with their commentaries in prose segregated.
Structure/Division of Yajurveda:
There are 40 adhyāyas in Vājasaneyi (वाजसनेयि) Saṁhitā of Śukla Yajurveda. These 40 chapters have been further divided into 303 anuvākas and 1975 kaṇḍikās (कण्डिका) (shortest division). The first 2 chapters contain mantras depicting the Darśa (दर्श) and Pūrṇamāsa (पूर्णमास) yajñyas. In 3rd chapter there are mantras depicting Agnihotra (अग्निहोत्र) and Cāturmāsya (चातुर्मास्य) yajñyas. Agnihotra yajñya is performed every day, whereas Cāturmāsya yajñya, once in 4 months. The 4th to 8th chapters describe the Agniṣṭoma yajñya (अग्निष्टोम यज्ञ), along with corresponding soma mantras. Soma was prepared by performing Agniṣṭoma yajñya. The 9th and 10th chapters are related to the Vājapeya (वाजपेय) and Rājasūya (राजसूय) yajñyas. The 11th to 18th chapters contain mantras connected with Agnicayana (अग्निचयन) sacrifices. With the recitation of these mantras chitis (चिति) or altars were constructed. The Agnicayana yajñya altar was in the form/shape of a flying bird and was made with 10800 iṣṭikās (इष्टिका) or bricks. There are about 35 different forms and shapes in which the Vedic altars could be made for the various kinds of yajñyas. The Śatarudriya (शतरुद्रिय) yajñya is performed even today. It contains the description related to Rudra (रुद्र). The 19th to 21st chapters contain the description of Sautrāmani (सौत्रामणि) and mantras related to Aśvamedha (अश्वमेध) yajñya. These mantras contain prayers for the welfare, prosperity, and strength for the whole nation. The 30th chapter contains mantras connected with Puruṣamedha (पुरुषमेध). The killings of 184 types of animals have been described in Puruṣamedha. The 31st chapter contains Puruṣasūkta (पुरुषसूक्त) which is originally a part of Ṛgveda. Six new mantras have been added to it in the Yajurveda recension. Similarly, subsequent chapters contain description of various yajñyas. The 40th chapter of Yajurveda is called jñānakāṇda (ज्ञानकाण्ड). The famous Īśāvāsya upaniṣad (ईशावास्य उपनिषद्) is a part of this chapter. Īśāvāsya upaniṣad, known for its sublime thoughts and philosophical propagation, inspires humanity even today.
Śākhās of Yajurveda:
At the time of Patañjali 101 śākhās or branches of Yajurveda were in practice. It would appear that in due course of time most of these śākhās became extinct. At present only five śākhās are available. These are: Kāṭhaka (काठक), Kapiṣṭhala (कपिष्ठल), Maitrāyaṇī (मैत्रायणी), Taittirīya (तैत्तिरीय) and Vājasaneyī (वाजसनेयी). Out of these five śākhās, the first four are connected with Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda and fifth śākhā belongs to Śukla Yajurveda.
Sāmaveda
Sāmaveda is third and shortest of the four Vedas. This Veda contains compilation of mantras from Ṛgveda. Sāma (साम) means gīti (गीति) or vocal musical performance. In the Sāmaveda the mantras of Ṛgveda are recited in a musical form. Mantras are marked with the swarachinha (स्वरचिन्ह) or musical notation according to musical accentuation norms in terms of seven notes or swaras (स्वर). This facilitates recitation of the song or sāman (सामन्) in proper musical way. The seven musical notes are marked on the letters from 1-7. Swaras are also depicted with the movement of fingers at the time of actual recitation. This Veda became immensely popular because of its musical beauty.
Structure/Division of Sāmaveda:
There are two divisions of Sāmaveda: Pūrvārcika (पूर्वार्चिक) and Uttarārcika (उत्तरार्चिक). These two have further been divided into prapāṭhakas (प्रपाठक). There are six prapāṭhakas in pūrvārcika and nine in uttarārcika. Every prapāṭhakas in pūrvārcika contains ten sūktas, each containing ten mantras. Only the last prapathaka contains nine sūktas. Similarly, there are other divisions as well.
Śākhās of Sāmaveda:
In ancient India, many branches of Sāmaveda had emerged. Patañjali even said Sahasravartmā Sāmavedaḥ (सहस्रवर्त्मा सामवेदः) meaning there are thousands of śākhās of Sāmaveda. At present only 3 śākhās are available: Kauthuma (कौथुम), Jaiminīya (जैमिनीय) and Rāṇāyanīya (राणायनीय). Kauthuma was particularly prevalent in Gujarat, Jaiminīya in Karnataka, and Rāṇāyanīya in Maharashtra.
Atharvaveda
Atharvaveda is regarded as the fourth Veda. As has been mentioned, in the beginning, there were only three Vedas. Several early Vedic and non-Vedic scriptures there is mention of Vedatrayī (वेदत्रयी). This indicates that in earlier times, learning, teaching and use of Atharvaveda in Vedic rituals was less frequent. But it is certain that this Veda is as ancient as the other Vedas. It finds mention in the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa (ऐतरेय ब्राह्मण) of Ṛgveda. From the point of view of knowledge and contemplation, Atharvaveda can be considered as an authentic Vedic text.
Structure/Division of Atharvaveda:
Atharvaveda can be divided into 20 kāṇḍas (काण्ड), 731 sūktas (सूक्त) and 5987 mantras. Traditionally it is said that about one fourth portion of Atharvaveda has been quoted from Ṛgveda. In 15th and 16th kāṇḍas prose has also been used. It contains discussions on sthālīpāka (स्थालीपाक) or annasiddhi (अन्नसिद्धि), medhājanana (मेधाजनन), brahmacharya (ब्रह्मचर्य), rāṣṭra saṁvardhana (राष्ट्र संवर्धन), parivāra-abhyudaya (परिवार-अभ्युदय), sāmmanasya (साम्मनस्य), rājakarma (राजकर्म), sāmarika (सामरिक), pāpakṣaya karma (पापक्षय कर्म), bhaiṣajya (भैषज्य), saṁskāra (संस्कार), abhicāra (अभिचार), darśana (दर्शन), āyuṣya (आयुष्य), and yājñika vidhi (याज्ञिक विधि).
Later part of Atharvaveda contains some forms of imprecations, or śāpavācaka (शापवाचक) – expressions for the destruction of enemies, prayers for safety and aversion of mishaps, evils, sins, or calamities, etc. Atharvaveda also covers many subjects related to philosophy, social life, education, politics, agriculture, science, and medicine.
Śākhās of Atharvaveda:
Patañjali has enumerated nine śākhās. These are Paippalāda (पैप्पलाद), Tauda (तौद), Mauda (मौद), Śaunakīya (शौनकीय), Jājala (जाजल), Jalada (जलद), Brahmaveda (ब्रह्मवेद), Devadarśa (देवदर्श) and Cāraṇavaidya (चारणवैद्य). At present Śaunakīya branch is popular and in practice.
Significance of Atharvaveda:
Atharvaveda was addressed as Brahmaveda since ancient period. Gopatha (गोपथ) Brāhmaṇa states:
It was called Brahmaveda as it deals with Brahmajñāna (ब्रह्मज्ञान) in details. The duties of Kṣatriyas (क्षत्रिय) were also described in it, hence it is Kṣatraveda (क्षत्रवेद). It is Bhaiṣajya (भैषज्य) or Āyurveda (आयुर्वेद), as there is discussion on the knowledge of medicine and treatment. Atharvaveda is also referred to by other names such as Mahīveda (महीवेद), Chandoveda (छन्दोवेद), etc.
The most important sūkta of Atharvaveda is Sāmmanasya which has prayers stating that there be peace in the entire world. The poet of Atharvaveda wished that every object in the world be consumed for the welfare of people.
All the four Vedic Samhitas concentrate on spreading message of sahajīvana (सहजीवन) or symbiosis and welfare of all beings. This sense manifests in mantras such as
You march ahead together, speak together, similar thoughts may arise in your minds!
It is significant to understand that the sense or purpose of yajñyas is not merely an act of ritual or karmakāṇda. Through this process one sacrifices his ego and becomes one with that Virāṭ (विराट्) Almighty/ Ultimate Reality, Brahman (ब्रह्मन्).
Atharvaveda provides mantras or methods of prayers for safety, aversion of mishaps, evils, sins or calamities, destruction of enemies, etc. It covers many subjects related to philosophy, social life, education, politics, agriculture, science and medicine.
Subclassification of Vedas
Each of the Veda has four distinct parts – the Saṁhitā (mantra), Brāhmaṇa, Āraṇyaka and Upaniṣad.
A. Saṁhitā
The collation and compilation of Vedic hymns is called Saṁhitā. Saṁhitā, in general, means ‘put together’. It also denotes collection of sounds, words, syllables, letters, numbers. In our context Saṁhitā is an arrangement of the text of the Vedas or collection of hymns of Vedas.
There are four Saṁhitās:
1. Ṛgveda Saṁhitā – is the collection of the hymns in praise of various deities like Agni, Surya,
Vayu, Indra etc. The whole of the Ṛgveda-Saṁhitā is in the form of verses, known as Ṛk (ऋक्). Thus, the collection of ṛc (ऋच्) or ṛk (ऋक्) is known as Ṛgveda-Saṁhitā.
– Mīmāṁsā Sūtra (मीमांसा सूत्र)
The arrangement of words or ‘pada’ according to the purport is called ṛc or ṛk.
2. Sāmaveda Saṁhitā – is the collection of knowledge of the melodies
– ( Mīmāṁsā Sūtra by Jaimini or ताः सगीतयः सामानि (kāvya Mīmāṁsā by Rajashekhara)
When a mantra is set to music and sung, it is called sāman.
3. Yajurveda Saṁhitā – is the collection of knowledge of the sacrificial formulas.
– Mīmāṁsā Sūtra
Rest of the mantras which are neither ṛk nor sāman are called yajus (यजुस्). Yajus mantras were written in prose with little or no mechanical dividing marks. Thus, distinguishing a single sentence of where a mantra ends was difficult.
4. Atharvaveda Saṁhitā – is the collection of knowledge of magic formulas atharvan (अथर्वन्). It contains many forms of imprecations for the destruction of enemies, a great number of prayers for safety and averting mishaps, evils, sins or calamities, and a number of hymns. These mantras and hymns were addressed to the gods and used during religious and solemn rites.
B. Brāhmaṇa
The scriptures explaining the knowledge inherent in Vedic Saṁhitās are known as Brāhmaṇas. Along with composition of mantras, the tradition of the task of writing commentaries on them was also in progress since the ancient times. The development of these commentaries was in the form of Brāhmaṇa treatises. Brāhmaṇa is a portion of the Veda which also states rules for the employment of the hymns for various sacrifices and rituals, their origin, and detailed explanations, with occasionally lengthy illustrations in the shape of legends and stories. All the yajñya (यज्ञ) or sacrifices, mahāvrata (महाव्रत) or religious acts of devotion or austerity, and other acts of religious or ritualistic nature prescribed for householders or gṛsthāśramī (गृहस्थाश्रमी) have been described in the Brāhmaṇa treatises.
There are ten essential characteristics of Brāhmaṇas. They constitute main parts of the process of commenting in the Brāhmaṇa scriptures. Śabarasvāmin (शबरस्वामिन्) has defined them as below:
- Hetu (हेतु) – the reason or the purpose of sacrifice
- Nirvacana (निर्वचन) – the etymological interpretation of the words
- Nindā (निन्दा) – describing defects of an object which is bad but has to be used in sacrifice
- Praśaṁsā (प्रशंसा) – eulogising the deity for whom the sacrifice is being performed
- Saṁśaya (संशय) – describing scepticism inherent in the mind of yajamāna (यजमान) or host of sacrifice
- Vidhi (विधि) – the method of performing sacrifice
- Prakṛti (प्रकृति) – mention of the act being performed for the benefit of others,
- Purākalpa (पुराकल्प) – allusion to some old tale, historical incidents or stories
- Vyavadhāraṇa – kalpanā (व्यवधारण-कल्पना) – special determination by mentioning numbers, etc. in some sacrificial act and
- Upamāna (उपमान) – citing example based on similarity.
With the help of the ten kinds of processes and methods mentioned above Brāhmaṇa scriptures posit threefold dimensions of human life: ādhibhautika (आधिभौतिक) (related to beings), ādhidaivika (आधिदैविक) (caused by fate or destiny), and ādhyātmika (आध्यात्मिक) – related to the supreme soul. Each Vedic Saṁhitā had its own Brāhmaṇa scriptures. Most of these are now extinct. The names of many are not even known. The Brāhmaṇa scriptures attached with various Saṁhitās are as follows:
- Ṛgveda Brāhmaṇa – Aitareya (ऐतरेय) or Āśvalāyana (आश्वलायन) and Kauṣītaki (कौषीतकि) or Sāṅkhyāyana (सांख्यायन).
- Śukla Yajurveda Brāhmaṇa – Śatapatha (शतपथ)
- Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda Brāhmaṇa – Taittirīya (तैत्तिरीय)
- Sāmaveda Brāhmaṇa – Pañcaviṁśa (पञ्चविंश) or Tāṇḍya (ताण्डय), Ṣaḍviṁśa (षड्विंश), Sāmavidhāna (सामविधान), Ārṣeya (आर्षेय), Daivata (दैवत), Upaniṣad, Chāndogya (छान्दोग्य), Saṁhitopaniṣad (संहितोपनिषद्), Vaṁśa (वंश), Jaiminīya Talavakāra (जैमिनीय तलवकार).
- Atharvaveda Brāhmaṇa – Gopath (गोपथ)
Significance of Brāhmaṇa scriptures
Brāhmaṇa scriptures are encyclopaedias of the Vedic culture. They can also be described as serious efforts to establish all-encompassing principles of the structure and functioning of human society. Based on these scriptures all the future great compositions regarding codes of conduct, such as Smṛti scriptures, were created. The spectacular significance of Brāhmaṇa scriptures is in the message to proceed further to lead the society on the right path. Propagators of the Brāhmaṇa scriptures defined the Indian culture through significant principles and thoughts in connection with fine arts, sculpture, aesthetics and poetry.
C. Āraṇyaka
Āraṇyaka is a class of religious and philosophical writings connected with the Brāhmaṇa texts, which are either composed in a forest or must be studied there.
All these quotes mean that Āraṇyaka is the kind of literature which has been pronounced, studied, and discussed in the forest.
All the vidhis (विधि) or procedures to perform the yajñya or sacrifices, mahāvrata or religious acts of devotion or austerity, hautra (हौत्र) or acts related with the office of the priest, prescribed for the forest dweller or Vānaprasthī (वानप्रस्थी), along with commentaries have been posited in Āraṇyaka treatises. Āraṇyaka are not only ritual treatises, they also contain the spiritual interpretation of and philosophical ethos inherent in these rituals. Āraṇyaka treatises provide the main foundation for the fully blossomed spiritual wisdom or Brahmajñāna (ब्रह्मज्ञान) in the Upaniṣads. On this count, there is some similarity between Āraṇyakas and Upaniṣads. Some Āraṇyakas later came to be known as Upaniṣads, e.g. Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad (बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद्). In the ancient Āraṇyaka period, 1130 Āraṇyakas were in existence. These Āraṇyakas were related to their respective Vedic Saṁhitās and Brāhmaṇa scriptures. At present, very few of these are available. Some of these are Aitareya (ऐतरेय), Sāṅkhyāyana (सांख्यायन), Bṛhadāraṇyaka (बृहदारण्यक), Taittirīya (तैत्तिरीय), Talavakāra (तलवकार), Chāndogya (छान्दोग्य).
D. Upaniṣad
The word ‘Upaniṣad’ (उपनिषद्) has been derived from the root Sad (सद्) – to sit, to which are added two prefixes: Upa (उप) and Ni (नि). The prefix Upa denotes nearness and Ni totality. Thus, this word means ‘sitting near-by devotedly’. These texts fall chronologically into the end of Vedic period and are therefore also referred to as Vedānta (वेदांत) i.e. the end of the Veda. Upaniṣads elucidate the mysteries and philosophical doctrines of the Vedas. The later philosophers saw in these elucidations of the Upaniṣads not the end but the final aim of the Veda.
Upaniṣads are spiritual and sciential writings that are attached to the Brāhmaṇa literature, chief aim of which is to ascertain the secret meaning of the Vedas. Some etymological compositions explaining the meaning of Upaniṣads are interesting:
By merging one’s own soul in that eternal consciousness “Parabrahman” (परब्रह्मन्) one ends the duality between self and Brahman (ब्रह्मन्), the Advaita (अद्वैत) or non-duality is established. The ignorance and other attributes emerging out of it are destroyed, so it is called Upaniṣad.
It is Upaniṣad because with its help one can transcend worldly knowledge and gain parā vidyā (परा विद्या), i.e. spiritual knowledge. The acme of philosophical thinking inherent in the Brāhmaṇas and Āraṇyakas is manifested in Upaniṣads.
Upaniṣads are also known to be esoteric or secret doctrine. They also contain true knowledge regarding Supreme Being. It is exceedingly difficult to ascertain the exact number of Upaniṣads. There are varied opinions in this regard. In the Muktikopaniṣad (मुक्तिकोपनिषद्) 108 Upaniṣads are mentioned but some more have been added to this number. Ādi Śaṅkarācārya (आदि शङ्कराचार्य) commented upon 10 Upaniṣads which made them significant ones. These are Iśa (ईश), Kena (केन), Kaṭha (कठ), Praśna (प्रश्न), Muṇḍaka (मुण्डक), Māṇḍūkya (माण्डूक्य), Taittirīya (तैत्तिरीय), Aitareya (ऐतरेय), Chāndogya (छान्दोग्य), and Bṛhadāraṇyaka (बृहदारण्यक). The following Upaniṣads are considered to be the most ancient: Aitareya (ऐतरेय), Bṛhadāraṇyaka (बृहदारण्यक), Chāndogya (छान्दोग्य), Taittirīya (तैत्तिरीय), Kaushītaki (कौषीतकि) and Kena (केन).
Upaniṣad philosophy and Greek philosophy
The thoughts expressed in Upaniṣads are comparable with the doctrines expressed in the dialogue between Plato and Aristotle. The similarity can be seen in the contents as well as the style of description. Heraclitus, a Greek philosopher, belonging to pre-Socratic era said – ‘I want to know myself’. The prime message from Upaniṣad is: आत्मानं विद्धि ‘Know thyself’. Socrates considered experiencing the Ultimate Reality as the chief goal of human being. For this he has prescribed the process of acquiring knowledge, reflecting or contemplating and meditating. Similar expression can be found in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad
[ बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद्, अ.2, ब्राह्मण 4. मन्त्र 5.]
[ बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद्, अ.4, ब्राह्मण 5. मन्त्र 6.]
One should see, hear about that Atman or Brahman, then should perceive or experience Him, contemplate Him and keep constantly meditating Him. Once one does all this he comes to know about every thing, he comes to know of the Ultimate Reality.
Anukramaṇikā (अनुक्रमणिका)
Anukramaṇikā texts were created to facilitate the studies of the Vedas. They were the compilation of all necessary information about a particular composition such as the contents, presiding ṛishi, presiding deity, details of arrangement of chapters and sub-chapters (anuvāka -अनुवाक), Vedic hymns (sūkta -सूक्त), mantra, prosody (chanda -छन्द), metres (pāda -पाद), etc.