Buddhism is one of the Nāstika Darśana as it does not acknowledge the authority of the Vedas. However, it stays silent on the existence of God.

Gautama Buddha (गौतम बुद्ध) (563-483 B.C.), under whose name, Buddhism was established, is perhaps one of the few examples of the chosen ones who made great sacrifices for the betterment, welfare, and upliftment of humanity. Born in a royal family, where all worldly delights and things of pleasure and happiness were easily available, Gautama Buddha at just twenty-nine years of age, left the palace one night, renouncing his kingdom, wealth, his beautiful wife and a lovely child and set out in the quest of the Ultimate Truth. His solitary goal was to seek the path of freedom to liberate humanity from misery and sufferings. He lived a long eighty years and strived to fulfil his life mission.

The source of Buddhist Philosophy chiefly comes from the three canonical works, called Tripiṭakas (त्रिपिटक). They were written in Pālī (पाली) and are said to contain Buddha’s thoughts and views. They are:

1. Vinayapiṭaka (विनयपिटक) – deals with the rules of Saṅgha (संघ)
2. Suttapiṭaka (सुत्तपिटक) – deals with Buddha’s sermons and dialogues
3. Abhidhammapiṭaka (अभिधम्मपिटक)- contains expositions of Philosophical theories

Different Sects of Buddhism

Common belief is that Buddha founded Buddhism during his lifetime. But the fact is that after his known first preaching at Sāranāth (सारनाथ) at Vārāṇasī (वाराणसी), he seldom preached publicly about his principles. It was only about 100 years after his death, two groups of the believers in Buddha precepts split and Buddhism came into being as a formal religion, with two different sects, since its commencement itself.

The two sects are known as

• Hīnayāna (हीनयान), the lower vehicle and
• Mahāyāna (महायान), the higher vehicle

The believers belonging to the sect which insisted on adhering to Buddha’s preaching verbatim were Hīnayānis. They were orthodox and interpreted Buddha’s preaching about attaining nirvāṇa (निर्वाण) or liberation by moral conduct and meditation. The Hīnayāna nomenclature was given to them by the other sect, which was known as Mahāyāna, the higher vehicle. Mahāyānis accepted wider meaning of Buddha’s sermons.

The Hīnayāna sect spread over the South Asian regions, like India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand etc. The Mahāyāna sect spread over the northern part of Asia, like Afghanistan, China, Japan, Mongolia, Korea, etc. Mahāyāna interpreted Buddha’s thoughts through local concepts and absorbed the local religious customs and traditions. According to the Mahāyāna sect Buddha himself was God.

Four different sects emerged after 400 years of Buddha’s passing away. The fourfold classification of Buddha philosophy is based upon two chief questions, one metaphysical or concerning reality and the other epistemological or concerning the knowledge of reality.

From Hīnayāna sect emerged yet two other sects: 

• Sautrāntika (सौत्रान्तिक)
• Vaibhāṣika (वैभाषिक)

Both are realistic and believe that the external world does exist absolutely. Sautrāntikas hold that external objects are not perceived but known by inference (anumāna (अनुमान)). Vaibhāṣikas, hold that the external world is directly perceived (pratyakṣa pramāṇa or प्रत्यक्ष प्रमाण).

From Mahāyāna sect emerged two sects

• Yogācāra (योगाचार) or Vijñānavāda (विज्ञानवाद)
• Mādhyamaka (माध्यमक)

Both these sects are idealistic in their approach which has also been called as ethical idealism. Both support the concept of Buddhist Anātmavāda (अनात्मवाद) or non-existence of soul and present the outer universe indifferently. In Yogācāra, the contention is that the existence of the outer objective universe is void of reality (vijñānamaya (विज्ञानमय)). This concept of vijñānamayatā (विज्ञानमयता) is also expressed in typical term ‘Tathatā (तथता)’ or ‘as it is’. This concept can be partly comparable with the “Ding an sich” or “thing in itself” propagated by famous German thinker Immanuel Kant. Mādhyamaka sect believes that the objective universe is svabhāvarahita (स्वभावरहित) or “without its own state or nature” meaning thereby that all is void Śūnya (शून्य) or cipher (zero). Founder of Mādhyamaka philosophy is Nāgārjuna (नागार्जुन).

In Buddhist principles two pramāṇas or means of comprehension or knowledge have been accepted. They are perception or pratyakṣa and inference or anumāna.

In Mādhyamaka  śūnyavāda (शून्यवाद) it is assumed that substance does not have its own state of being, it is without its own nature, despite this its existence is not denied. According to this thought the spiritual or metaphysical absolute Ātman (आत्मन्) or ‘Being’ is like a start-up point and not abhāva (अभाव) or ‘non-existence’. According to Mādhyamaka school this ‘absolute being’ is beyond words. It is Prajñāpāramitā (प्रज्ञापारमिता) or ‘such-ness’. This is almost comparable with Vedāntika (वेदान्तिक) expression ‘neti neti’ (नेति नेति). This concept can also be expressed, in typical Mādhyamaka sect canon, as perceptible world or saṁvṛtisatya (संवृतिसत्य). Saṁvṛti (संवृति) means ‘accepted by each and everybody.’ This can also be compared with Vedāntika expression vyāvahārika sattā (व्यावहारिक सत्ता). Buddhist concept of nirvāṇa is like Vedāntika Mokṣa. This can be attained   only through renouncing Tṛṣṇā (तृष्णा) or thirst or desire, which is like Vedāntika concept of Niṣkāma karma (निष्काम कर्म).

Principles of Buddhism

In Buddhism emphasis is laid on the eradication of human misery and suffering, which became the central theme of Buddhism founded in the later years.  Lord Buddha seldom participated in any kind of theological, moral, or even theoretical debates on serious matters related with highly philosophical genre. He addressed such matters as Avyākṛta (अव्याकृत) (or undefined). In his first religious sermons in the Dharmacakrapravartana (धर्मचक्रप्रवर्तन) conference held at Sāranāth, Buddha formulated main philosophical principles, which, eventually became formal canonical order.

These principles or doctrines are also known as four Noble Truths (Āryasatya (आर्यसत्य)) or chief elements. They are:

1. Duḥkha (दुःख) or Suffering: Life invariably leads to suffering.
2. Duḥkhasamudaya (दुःखसमुदय) or the origin or cause of suffering:. The cause for suffering is craving or Āsakti (आसक्ति). This craving for things or events in reality is a delusion.
3. Duḥkhanirodha (दुःखनिरोध) or cessation of suffering: Suffering has a reason or cause, so try and eradicate the cause and suffering will cease to exist. This state leads to enlightenment or Bodhi (बोधि).
4. Duḥkhanīvaraṇa – Āṣṭāṅgamārga (दुःखनिवारण- अष्टाङ्गमार्ग) or the eight-fold path to liberation: Eradication of suffering can be achieved through the eight-fold path, which is advocated for attainment of nirvāṇa:
   1. Samyak-dṛṣṭi (सम्यक्-दृष्टि) or appropriate understanding
   2. Samyak-saṅkalpa (सम्यक्-सङ्कल्प) or appropriate resolve
   3. Samyak-vāc (सम्यक्-वाच्) or appropriate speech
   4. Samyak-karma (सम्यक्-कर्म) or appropriate action
   5. Samyak-ājīvikā (सम्यक्-आजीविका) or appropriate means of livelihood
   6. Samyak-vyāyāma (सम्यक्-व्यायाम) or appropriate volition or efforts
   7. Samyak-smṛti (सम्यक्-स्मृति) or appropriate memory or mindfulness
   8. Samyak-samādhi (सम्यक्-समाधि) or appropriate concentration leading to proper meditation.

The three famous refuges which are to be sworn by the believer in Buddhism are:

• Buddham śaraṇaṃ gacchāmi (बुद्धं शरणं गच्छामि) (I take refuge of Lord Buddha)
• Dhammam śaraṇaṃ gacchāmi (धम्मम् शरणं गच्छामि) (I take refuge of righteousness or Dharma (धर्म))
• Saṅgham śaraṇaṃ gacchāmi (संघं शरणं गच्छामि) (I take refuge of the concept of togetherness)

Refuge (Śaraṇam (शरणं)) is a place one goes to find peace, security, and safety. The Buddhist considers continual rebirth in saṁsāra (संसार) or the world to be an unenviable prospect and believes the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha to be a refuge from this. Thus, the Buddha, Dhamma and Saṅgha are often called the Three Refuges. The Buddha is a refuge in that his enlightenment demonstrates that saṁsāra can be transcended, the Dhamma is a refuge in that it shows how enlightenment can be attained and the Saṅgha is a refuge in that it offers the guidance, encouragement, example and support needed to transcend saṁsāra.

Other important teachings

In addition to eradication of human suffering as main principle, all the Buddhist sects consider some common principles:

1. Sarvam nityam (सर्वं नित्यं) or sarvam kṣaṇikam (सर्वं क्षणिकं): According to this sub-principle everything in the universe lasts for a moment only. Action and change make every existence significant and relevant. In absence of change and action, there is no existence. Hence, everything is momentary (kṣaṇabhaṅgura or क्षणभंगुर). Nothing is permanent.
2. Sarvam duḥkham (सर्वं दुःखं): According to this the whole being is pervaded by suffering.
3. Sarvam anātmam (सर्वं अनात्मम्): This sub-principle advocates that everything is bereft of Ātman. Here the word anātmam is loaded and denotes an unchangeable dravya or entity. In this there is belief in rebirth, yet here rebirth means a wave generating another wave.
4. Sarvam tathātmam (सर्वं तथात्मं): meaning thereby everything is as it is. Each and every substance cannot be described in terms of form. According to Buddhist philosophy, substance is śunya or point of setting off.
5. Nirvāṇam śāntam (निर्वाणं शान्तं): According to this one reaches a state of a being where mundane things such as greed, desire, thirst etc., do not exist, it is an ultimate state or nirvāṇa which is attained by an Arhat (अर्हत्) or Buddha. Attaining this state of existence is the final goal and purpose of human life.

Conditioned or interdependent arising

Pratītyasamutpāda (प्रतीत्यसमुत्पाद) means conditioned or interdependent arising. This is a Buddhist canonical concept, which leads to understanding the cause-effect relationship of various events happening in the universe. This theory is in contradiction with Vedantic ātmavādī (आत्मवादी) concept, which advocates that a change is caused in something which already exists. According to Buddhist thought there exists the doctrine which posits that every mental and physical aspect emerge and exist due to conditionality or presence of certain conditions. Those aspects cease to exist once those conditions are no more there. The concept of cycle of suffering and rebirth stands explained by this principle.

Buddhism is more of a philosophy and a humanistic way of life which can be summed up as a striving to lead a moral life, being aware of one’s thoughts and actions and developing wisdom, compassion and understanding.