ĀSTIKA DARŚANA

Darsana
Philosophy or Darśana
Black buddha silhouette against grunge orange background
NĀSTIKA DARŚANA

ĀSTIKA DARŚANA (आस्तिक दर्शन)

The Āstika schools of Indian philosophy are collectively known as Ṣaḍdarśana (षड्दर्शन) as they are enumerated as six schools. These are Kapila’s (कपिल) Sāṅkhya (सांख्य), Patañjali’s (पतञ्जलि) Yoga (योग), Gautama’s (गौतम) Nyāya (न्याय), Kaṇāda’s (कणाद) Vaiśeṣika (वैशेषिक), Jaimini’s (जैमिनि) Pūrva Mīmāṁsā (पूर्व मीमांसा) and Bādarāyaṇa’s (बादरायण) Uttara Mīmāṁsā (उत्तर मीमांसा) or Vedānta (वेदान्त).

Although these schools of philosophy recognize the authority of the Vedas, it does not mean that they are in full agreement with all the doctrines of the Vedas. Some of them even have reservation about the existence of God. For example, although Sāṅkhya has kept silence on the question of the existence of god, is atheist philosophy, Yoga is practically independent of the Veda, Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika accept God as the result of inference, Pūrva Mīmāṁsā derives the general conception of deities from the Vedas but is not anxious about the Supreme Spirit. The Uttara Mīmāṁsā accepts God on the basis of Śruti (श्रुति) assisted by inference, while realisation of God can be had through meditation and knowledge (jnāna (ज्ञान)).

Sāṅkhyadarśana (सांख्यदर्शन)

Sāṅkhya is one of the oldest systems of Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila, who is considered by scholars to be older than Buddha, is considered to be the original propagator of this school of philosophy. According to tradition, he created Sāṅkhya Sūtras, which are not available now. According to some scholars the ancient Sāṅkhyadarśana contained a part known as Brahmavidyā (ब्रह्मविद्या), which dealt with cosmogony and cosmology. The present Sāṅkhyadarśana is available in the form of Sāṅkhyakārikā (सांख्यकारिका) by Īśvarakṛṣṇa (ईश्वरकृष्ण) (300 CE).

The word ‘Sāṅkhya’ means right knowledge as well as number. It is the dualistic and atheist philosophy of creation or causation. The system is predominantly intellectual and theoretical. Sāṅkhya recognizes only three of the six proofs – pramāṇas (प्रमाण) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge – perception (pratyakṣa or प्रत्यक्ष), inference (anumāṇa  or अनुमान) and verbal testimony (śabda or शब्द) or āptavacana or आप्तवचन). 

Sāṅkhya believes in an uncompromising dualism or dvaita (द्वैत) because of its doctrine of two realities: Puruṣa or पुरुष (self, spirit) and Prakṛti or प्रकृति (matter). Sāṅkhya is blended with pluralistic spiritualism (pluralistic means that Puruṣa is not one but many) and atheistic realism as it considers that both matter and spirit are equally real.

Puruṣa stands for the Supreme Spirit. It is pure consciousness, the soul, Self, or knower. It is not substance, rather an essence, beyond time and activity. It enjoys and witnesses Prakṛti’s activities but does not cause them. As the immaterial soul, Puruṣa is not known through direct perception.

Prakṛti is the primordial substance and ultimate cause of all the gross and subtle objects of the material world. Prakṛti is devoid of consciousness, and unintelligible. It can only manifest itself as the various objects of experience of the Puruṣa. Prakṛti is constituted of three guṇas (गुण) or qualities – sattva (सत्त्व), rajas (रजस्) and tamas (तमस्). The highest of the three is sattva (essence), the principle of light, goodness and intelligence. Rajas (dust) is the principle of change, energy and passion, while tamas (darkness) is inactivity, dullness, heaviness and despair.

Sāṅkhya believes in Satkāryavāda (सत्कार्यवाद), according to which effect pre-exists in cause. For e.g. oil exists in the seed, even before it is extracted. It maintains that kārya (कार्य) (effect) is sat or real. It is present in the karaṇa (करण) or cause in a potential form, even before its manifestation. In accordance with the Satkāryavāda, the Sāṅkhya maintains that the three guṇas of Prakṛti are also associated with all the world objects.

According to Sāṅkhya cosmology, there are 25 tattvas or elements. Sāṅkhya advocates theory of evolution according to which the entire world is the resultant effect of the proximity of two primary elements or tattvas (तत्त्व) – Prakṛti and Puruṣa. The proximity between these two ultimate realities disturb the state of equilibrium that exists among the guṇas or attributes of Prakṛti and gives rise to evolution. 

The evolution results in 23 different categories of objects (tattva). The first to evolve is Mahat (महत्), which is the manifestation of (Buddhi (बुद्धि) or intellect). The second evolute, which arises out of the cosmic nature of Mahat, is called Ahaṅkāra (अहंकार) or ego. There emanate two sets of objects from Ahaṅkāra. The first set comprises of Manas (मनस्) (mind), the five sense organs or jñānendriya (ज्ञानेन्द्रिय) – eyes, ears, skin, tongue, nose, and five motor organs or karmendriya (कर्मेन्द्रिय) – speech, hands, feet, sex organs and excretory organs. The second set consists of five elements which may exist in two forms – subtle  or tanmātra (तन्मात्र) -form, sound, smell, taste, touch, and gross or mahābhūta (महाभूत) -plasma or ether, water, air, fire and earth.

Sāṅkhya believes that bondage and liberation are only phenomenal.  It is only the ego, the product of Prakṛti, which is bound. Consequently, it is the ego that is liberated.  The original Sāṅkhya was monistic and theistic, but the classical Sāṅkhya is atheistic.  It explains creation in a manner where the implicit becomes explicit and where there exists neither production nor destruction.

Yogadarśana (योग दर्शन)

The word Yoga means “Union”, “practice”, or “contemplation’’.  The philosophy of Yoga is closely associated with the Sāṅkhya tradition. While both Yoga and Sāṅkhya share the same metaphysics, epistemology and the common goal of liberating Puruṣa, but their methods differ. Like Sāṅkhya, Yoga accepts dualism of Puruṣa and Prakṛti as well as all the three proofs (pramāṇas) as the reliable means of gaining knowledge (perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāṇa) and verbal testimony (śabda or āptavacana). It also accepts all the twenty-five elements of Sāṅkhya philosophy and considers an additional element of God. Yoga believes in God (Īśvara) as the Special Self (Puruṣaviśeṣa (पुरुषविशेष)), distinct from other selves (Puruṣas). Hence it is called Seśvara (सेश्वर) or “with Īśvara” or theist. The classical Sāṅkhya is atheist or non-believer.

Based on the ancient texts as well as archaeological records, it is evident that Yoga has been practiced in India for well over 4000 years. Patañjali systematized the pre-existing traditions and authored what came to be known as Patañjali’s Yoga Sūtra (योग सूत्र). According to Yoga Sūtra Yogadarśana help structures the framework of mind-body working as the tool of attainment of its philosophical objectives.

Patañjali begins his treatise by the following definition of “yoga”:

योगश्चित्तवृत्तिनिरोधः ॥२॥

– Yoga Sūtras 1.2

 

Yoga is the restraint of mental operations or states of mind.

Yoga Sūtra is divided into 4 Pāda (पाद) or chapters containing 196 Sūtras –

  1. Samādhi Pāda (समाधिपाद) (51 Sūtras) deals with the nature and the means to attain Samādhi. Samādhi is a complete cessation of all active states of mind, a state of direct and reliable perception (pramāṇa) where the self-identity is absorbed into pure consciousness.
  2. Sādhanā Pāda (साधनापाद) (55 Sūtras) discusses the means to realize this end. Sādhanā means practice or discipline. It outlines the various practices, and moral and ethical observances that are preliminary requirements to serious meditative practice. Sadhapa Pāda outlines the Aṣṭāṅga (अष्टाङ्ग) Yoga (Eightfold or Eightlimbed Yoga), in order to control the sensuous passions which often distract both the body and mind. This path consists of following aspects:
        1. Yama (यम) – restraints or ethics of behaviour
          These are :
          • Ahiṁsā (अहिंसा) (non-violence), i.e., abstaining from causing injury by any means of thought, action, and word.
          • Satya (सत्य) (truthfulness), i.e., abstaining from falsehood.
          • Astēya (अस्तेय)—abstaining from stealing.
          • Brahmacarya (ब्रह्मचर्य) (celibacy)—abstaining from lust.
          • Aparigraha (अपरिग्रह)—abstaining from possessing worldly goods.
        2. Niyama (नियम) – observances
          Self-restraint and self-culture which includes Śauca (शौच), meaning external and internal purification; Saṇtoṣa (संतोष) or contentment; Tapas (तपस्) or austerity; Svādhyāya (स्वाध्याय) or self-study and Īśvara praṇidhāna (ईश्वर प्रणिधान) or devotion to God.
        3. Āsana (आसन) – steady and comfortable posture that disciplines the body for proper meditation.
        4. Prāṇāyāma (प्राणायाम) – control over breathing by regulating inhalation, retention and exhalation. This helps in concentration of mind.
        5. Pratyāhāra (प्रत्याहार) – control of the senses and withdrawing the senses from their objects.
          These five are the external aids – Bahiraṅga sādhanā (बहिरंग साधना) to yoga. Then, there are three internal aids – Antaraṅga sādhanā (अंतरंग साधना)
        6. Dhāraṇā (धारणा) – fixing of the mind on the object of meditation. The mind must be steadfast like an unflickering flame of lamp.
        7. Dhyāna (ध्यान) – meditation – the undisturbed flow of thought of the object of meditation – pratyayaikatānatā (प्रत्ययैकतानता).
        8. Samādhi (समाधि) – concentration. This is the final stage in yoga. In this stage the mind is completely absorbed in the object of meditation. Samādhi is the final stage in Yoga. In Dhyāna, the act of meditation and object of meditation remain separate, but they become one in Samādhi. It is the ecstatic state in which the link with the external field is completely cut off.
  3. Vibhūti Pāda (विभूतिपाद) (56 Sūtras) deals with the supra-normal powers which can be obtained by means of Yoga.
  4. Kaivalya Pāda (कैवल्यपाद) (34 Sūtras) deals with the process of liberation (Mokṣa) and the reality of transcendental self.

Rājayoga (राजयोग) through Haṭhayoga (हठयोग) is a spiritual path to attain liberation. Haṭhayoga means controlling of body, senses and the mind with the help of Āsanas and Yama-niyamas.

Goal of Yoga is to avoid the pain which has not come yet –

हेयं दुःखम् अनागतम्||

The cause of this pain is the conjunction of Prakṛti and Puruṣa and the cause of this conjunction is Avidyā (अविद्या) or spiritual ignorance. Once Avidyā disappears conjunction of Prakṛti and Puruṣa also disappears. Result is absence of influence of Prakṛti over Puruṣa. This is the state of Kaivalya or final emancipation of the seer or Draṣtāraḥ (द्रष्टार:) 

Nyāyadarśana (न्यायदर्शन)

Nyāya means “rules” or “methods”. This school of thought is primarily concerned with logic and epistemology. It is also known Ānvīkṣikī (आन्वीक्षिकी) (the science of critical study) and Tarkaśāstra (तर्कशास्त्र) (science of reasoning). The propagator of Nyāya philosophy is Akṣapāda Gautama (अक्षपाद गौतम), who wrote Nyāya Sūtras. Vātsyāyana (वात्स्यायन) wrote a commentary entitled Nyāyabhāṣya on Nyāya Sūtras.

Nyāya is a school of atomistic pluralism which means that the atom is the constituent of matter and there are many entities, both material and spiritual, as the ultimate constituents of the universe, and logical realism  which means that the world exists independently from our perceptions and beliefs and this existence can be explained by logical arguments on the nature of experience. Nyāya system believes that earthly life is full of suffering and the bondage is due to ignorance. Liberation is possible only through right knowledge of reality. In this sense, it is allied to the Vaiśeṣika philosophy.

Gautama felt that salvation (Niḥśreyas (निःश्रेयस्)) can be obtained only if the right effort is made and effort can be right only if it is in accordance with reality. To know what reality is, the knowledge has to be right and logically valid. Gautama enunciated 16 Padārtha (पदार्थ) or categories of logic, epistemology and argumentation as means to salvation. They are:

  1. Pramāṇa – valid means of cognition
  2. Prameya (प्रमेय) – the knowable
  3. Saṁśaya (संशय) – doubt
  4. Prayojana (प्रयोजन) – purpose
  5. Dṛṣṭānta (दृष्टान्त) – example
  6. Siddhānta (सिद्धान्त) – established doctrine
  7. Avayava (अवयव) – a member or a component part of a logical argument or syllogism
  8. Tarka (तर्क) – logic, reason
  9. Nirṇaya (निर्णय) – ascertainment
  10. Vāda (वाद) – controversy
  11. Jalpa (जल्प) – wrangling
  12. Vitaṇḍā (वितण्डा) – a frivolous or fallacious argument
  13. Hetvābhāsa (हेत्वाभास) – semblance of reason, fallacy
  14. Chala (छल) – quibbling
  15. Jātī (जाती) – futile answer or argument and
  16. Nigrahasthāna (निग्रहस्थान) – places or occasions for restraint

Nyāya system accepts four proofs (pramāṇas) as the reliable means of gaining knowledge – perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāṇa), comparison (upamāna or उपमान) and verbal testimony (śabda or āptavacana).

The Nyāya Philosophy upholds Asatkāryavāda (असत्कार्यवाद) which states that effect is not same as the cause. The effect did not exist in the material cause prior to its production. For e.g. oil does not exist in reality until it is extracted from the seed.  Nyāya believes that God is the Creator, Sustainer and Destroyer of the universe. He is the efficient, but not the material cause of the universe. The material cause of this universe is the eternal atoms of earth, water, fire, and air.

According to Nyāya, salvation is the state of absolute freedom which can be attained by right knowledge and overcoming one’s delusions by understanding the true nature of Soul, Self and Reality.

Vaiśeṣikadarśana (वैशेषिकदर्शन)

Etymologically the term Viśeṣa (विशेष) means partlessness, i.e. something which cannot be further broken down

विगतः शेषः यस्मात्

Vaiśeṣikadarśana is a text of science, therefore it has been named as Vaiśeṣikaśāstra. The concepts and doctrines deliberated in Vaiśeṣika are rational and could not be easily explained in terms of spirituality or religion. Maharṣi Kaṇāda (महर्षिकणाद) was the founder of Vaiśeṣika system. Vaiśeṣika Sūtras by Maharṣi Kaṇāda are the basic treatise of this school. Praśastapādabhāṣya (प्रशस्तपादभाष्य) or Padārthadharmasaṅgraha (पदार्थधर्मसङ्ग्रह) is the commentary on these Sūtras followed by a couple of commentaries on Praśastapādabhāṣya itself.

Vaiśeṣika philosophy is pluralistic realism as it explains the nature of the world in seven categories. It is also a theist philosophy as it refers to God as the Supreme Soul. According to this school the valid pramāṇas are – direct perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāna), and verbal testimony (śabda). Indian thinkers, at one point of time, tried to put together Vaiśeṣika and Nyāya schools of philosophy under one banner called Nyāya Vaiśeṣika. According to us this was inappropriate. Vaiśeṣikaśāstra has always been an independent subject and Nyāyaśāstra had its independent entity.

Vaiśeṣika accepted seven basic entities or Padārthas –

  1. Dravya (द्रव्य) or quantities,
  2. Guṇa (गुण) or properties,
  3. Karma (कर्म) or action,
  4. Sāmānya (सामान्य) or set,
  5. Viśeṣa (विशेष) or partlessness,
  6. Samavāya (समवाय) or con-commitance,
  7. Abhāva (अभाव) (non-existence). The seventh entity, abhāva, has not been ennumerated by Kaṇāda. This is a later addition.

In Vaiśeṣikaśāstra the term Dravya comprises of nine quantities.

पृथिव्यापस्तेजो वायुराकाशं कालो दिगात्मा मन इति द्रव्याणि

The seven quantities, viz solid, (pṛthvī -पृथ्वी), liquid (āpah -आपः), gas (vāyu -वायु), energy (tejas -तेजस्), plasma (ākāśa -आकाश), space (dik-दिक्) and time (kāla -काल) are also accepted by Modern Physics and are considered as ‘Fundamental Physical Quantities.’ Besides these, Vaiśeṣika has also described cognitive elements – soul or ātman (आत्मन्) and mind or manas (मनस्). The last two, ātman and manas, are considered as metaphysical quantities in Indian tradition. But our investigations indicate that these two are also rational quantities just like other seven, so far as Vaiśeṣikaśāstra is concerned. For detailed knowledge please refer “Maharshi Kaṇāda’s Vaiśeṣikaśāstram: a Treatise on Physical and cognitive Sciences, A book of Physics”by Narayan Gopal Dongre and Shankar Gopal Nene, Triangle Concepts, Pune, 2010.

The recent researches bear out that Vaiśeṣika philosophy has advocated several concepts which can be compared with those in modern physics, including concept of atoms. For example, Vaisesika defines the size of an atom objectively. As an atom itself does not have any property, it cannot be perceived; the smallest particle that can be seen can only be a trasareṇu (त्रसरेणु), and only then the properties (smell, taste, colour etc.) are perceived. Thus, the sixtieth part of trasareṇu will give the range of action (kriyākṣetra (क्रियाक्षेत्र)) of the atom (paramāṇu (परमाणु)). There is a verse that puts the size of the atom objectively. The sixtieth part of the smallest dust particle (rajah (रज:)) seen in sunbeam is an atom.

Unlike most of the other schools of philosophy Vaiśeṣikaśāstra, along with the knowledge of spirituality or Brahman, advocates necessity of knowledge of Padārthas or physical quantities in order to attain Niḥśreyas or Mokṣa. It says:

धर्म्मविशेषप्रसूतात् द्रव्यगुणकर्म्मसामान्यविशेषसमवायानाम् पदार्थानां
साधर्म्यवैधर्म्याभ्यां तत्त्वज्ञानात् निःश्रेयसम् –

The knowledge of ultimate brahman can be attained through the knowledge of similarities and dissimilarities inherent between the physical and metaphysical basic quantities, properties, motion, set, specifics and concomitance produced due to cosmic order (dharma). It also states that the knowledge of basic physical quantities will lead one to the knowledge of basic metaphysical quantities. It also explicitly posits that the knowledge of self (ātmajñāna (आत्मज्ञान)) and prognosis of the ultimate sorrow (Ātyantikaduḥkhanivṛtti nidānatvaṃ (आत्यन्तिकदुःखनिवृत्ति निदानत्वं) are obtained through the knowledge of physical and metaphysical quantities. Vaiśeṣikaśāstra, indeed, believes like any other school of Indian philosophy, that Mokṣa or salvation is the ultimate goal.

Pūrva Mīmāṁsā (पूर्व मीमांसा) or Mīmāṁsā

The meaning of the word Mīmāṁsā is ‘investigation’ or ‘enquiry’. It is also known as Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā because it focuses on the earlier (pūrva) part of Vedic texts which deals with rituals and sacrifices. As it deals with the acts of duties, performance of sacrificial rites, it is also known as Karma-Mīmāṃsā. The founder of this School of Philosophy was a great seer and sage Jaimini (जैमिनि), who wrote the Mīmāṁsā Sūtras.

Mīmāṁsā discussions regarding the true meaning of the Vedic texts are traditionally found in Taittirīyasaṃhitā (तैत्तिरीयसंहिता), Aitareya Āraṇyaka (ऐतरेय आरण्यक), Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad (बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद्) and Chāndogyopaniṣad (छान्दोग्योपनिषद्), much prior to the Jaimini Sūtras.  Brāhmaṇas described details of sacrifices and explained the ceremonial procedures, which over the years developed into a complicated and complex system. The Upaniṣad (उपनिषद्) emphasized on the philosophy of the Vedic mantras, thereby pushing sacrifices to the background and even questioning the reasons of these rituals. The rise of Buddhism further questioned the veracity of the rituals, thereby endangering the ritualistic tradition of the Vedas. To prove the soundness of the Vedic tradition and establish the authorities of the Vedas, Jaimini established the Mīmāṁsā Sūtras by the end of second century CE.

The earliest available commentary on Mīmāṁsā Sūtras is Śabarasvāmin (शबरस्वामिन्) Śabarabhāṣya (शबरभाष्य). Renowned scholars Kumārila Bhaṭṭa (कुमारिल भट्ट) and Prābhākara (प्राभाकर) independently wrote their commentaries on Śabarabhāṣya.

The Prābhākara school, described the five reliable means to gaining knowledge (pramāṇas), whereas the Bhaṭṭa school added a sixth pramāṇa – anupalabdhi (अनुपलब्धि). The six pramāṇas were: direct observation or perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāna), authority (śabda), analogy (upamāna), inference from circumstances or presumption or postulation (arthāpatti (अर्थापत्ति), and non-apprehension or non-cognition (anupalabdhi). 

Mīmāṁsā considers Dharma as karma. Adharma (अधर्म) is demerit or non-performance of action. Every individual must plunge into action. Action or karma is the final import of the Veda. According to Mīmāṁsā philosophy solitary source to attain Mokṣa is performing sacrifices or yajñya (यज्ञ) as per prescribed process and methodology.

Mīmāṁsā recognizes three important karmas:

  1. Vihita (विहित) or obligatory actions – Since these actions have been prescribed by scriptures this is obligatory to perform by every individual. Their performance supports man, society, and the universe. The non-performance of these actions is characterized as adharma.
  2. Naimittika (नैमित्तिक) or occasional actions – These actions are to be performed on account of some specific occasion such as eclipse etc.
  3. Kāmya (काम्य) or specific actions for the fulfilment of desires – These karmas are to be performed to fulfil one’s desire to achieve some specific thing.

The system is a pluralistic realist as it endorses the reality of the world as well as that of the individual souls. The reality of Ātman is accepted by Mīmāṁsā as distinct from mind or Manas, senses and physical body. This system of philosophy is both atheist and theist as the earlier Mīmāṁsakas (मीमांसक) do not endorse God as the Creator of the Universe, but later Mīmāṁsākas show  inclination towards theism. It believes in the Unseen Power or ‘Apūrva (अपूर्व)’ and it supports the theory of liberation.

Uttara Mīmāṁsā (उत्तर मीमांसा) or Vedānta (वेदांत)

Literal meaning of Vedānta is “end of Vedas”. Anta (अन्त) indicates two purports: end and culmination. Upaniṣadic texts are called Vedānta, as they appear at the end of Vedas. This way Upaniṣads are culmination of Vedas. The main treatise is Bādarāyaṇa’s (बादरायण) Brahmasūtra (ब्रह्मसूत्र) or Vedānta Sūtras. There are about 555 aphorisms or Sūtras divided into 4 chapters.

Bādarāyaṇa summarized and interpreted the teaching of the Upaniṣads in the Brahma Sūtras. Hence Vedānta philosophy is also called Brahma Mīmāṁsā. However, Bādarāyaṇa was not the first person to systematize the teachings of the Upaniṣads, as he quotes six Vedantic teachers before him – Āśmarathya (आश्मरथ्य), Bādari (बादरि), Auḍulomi (औडुलोमि), Kāśakṛtsna (काशकृत्स्न), Kārṣṇājini (कार्ष्णाजिनि), and Ātreya (आत्रेय). In Brahmasūtra, Brahman has been considered as the Ultimate Reality. It also discusses the ways and means to attain Brahmavidyā (ब्रह्मविद्या). Principles posited in Brahmasūtra tally with Upaniṣadic doctrines.

The purpose of Brahmasūtras is to remove the inherent contradictions manifested in Upaniṣadic sentences. Vedānta is concerned with the jñānakāṇḍa (ज्ञानकाण्ड) or knowledge section of the Vedas, which are Upaniṣads. Vedānta philosophy is also called Uttara Mīmāṁsā, which means the “latter or “higher enquiry” often contrasted with Pūrva Mimasa which is the “former or primary enquiry”. Greater stress has been put on ātmajñāna or spirituality, rather than on rituals.

The Vedānta philosophy forms its base from the three sources or texts, also called Prasthānatrayī (प्रस्थानत्रयी), which are – the Upaniṣads or Śrutiprasthāna (श्रुतिप्रस्थान), the Brahmasūtra or Nyāyaprasthāna (न्यायप्रस्थान) / Yukti prasthāna (युक्ति प्रस्थान) and the Bhagavad Gītā (भगवद् गीता) or Smṛti prasthāna (स्मृतिप्रस्थान). Vedānta philosophy discuss three fundamental metaphysical categories and the relations between the three –

  • Brahman or Īśvara: The Ultimate Reality
  • Ātman or Jīvātman (जीवात्मन्): the individual soul, self
  • Prakṛti/ Jagat (जगत्): the empirical world, ever-changing physical universe, body and matter. Jīva (जीव), as bhōktā (भोक्ता) and Kartā (कर्ता), has also been described. The concepts of Ātman, and Mokṣa are significant in Vedāntika (वेदान्तिक) interactions.

Dharmajijñāsā (धर्मजिज्ञासा) and Brahmajijñāsā (ब्रह्मजिज्ञासा) are also significant aspects of Vedānta. Brahman has been described as omniscient, omnipresent, and omnipotent. It has also been described as Nirguṇa (without qualities), Nirākāra (निराकार) (formless) and Nirvikāra (निर्विकार) (without modification).  Another manifestation of Brahman is also Satyam (सत्यं), Jñānam (ज्ञानम्), Anantam (अनन्तम्) (truth, knowledge and without end).   Māyā (माया) or Avidyā is also an aspect which has been described in Vedāntika thought processes. One of the most important doctrines of Vedānta Advaita philosophy is Māyāvāda (मायावाद) – that is, illusion or cosmic illusion. 

Based on the varying interpretations of the Upaniṣads, Brahmasūtras and the Bhagavad Gītā, there developed different schools of Vedānta of which the following are considered as prominent –

  • Kevalādvaita (केवलाद्वैत) (Monism or non-dualism) of Śaṅkarācārya (शङ्कराचार्य) ), (800 century CE)
  • Viśiṣṭādvaita (विशिष्टाद्वैत) (qualified non-dualism) of Rāmānujācārya (रामानुजाचार्य) (1100CE)
  • Dvaita (द्वैत) (dualism) of Mādhavācarya (माधवाचर्य) (1100 CE)
  • Dvaitādvaita (द्वैताद्वैत) (non-dualism in dualism) of Nimbārkācārya (निम्बार्काचार्य) (1200 CE)
  • Śuddhādvaita (शुद्धाद्वैत) (pure non-dualism) of Vallabhācārya (वल्लभाचार्य) (1500-1600 CE)

The above schools of philosophy share some common features like -considering Upaniṣads as the reliable source of knowledge (Śabda Pramāṇa), concepts of Ātman/ Jīva (individual soul), Karma, Mokṣa (liberation), Brahman (which exists as the unchanging material cause and/or instrumental cause of the world) and rejection of Buddhism and Jainism.

Kevalādvaita Vedānta by Adi Śaṅkarācārya is the oldest and most studied school of Vedānta philosophy. All other schools of Vedānta advocate theological philosophies of Vaishnavism. They advocate the thought of Viṣṇu (विष्णु) or Kṛṣṇa (कृष्ण) as Parabrahman (परब्रह्मन्) or Ultimate Reality. Śaṅkarācārya’s Kevalādvaita is also known as Absolute Monism.

Advaita Vedānta recognizes the six pramāṇas (sources and criteria of valid knowledge) on the basis of the Mīmāṁsā school of Kumārila Bhaṭṭa: perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāna), verbal testimony (śabda), comparison (upamāna), postulation or arthāpatti (अर्थापत्ति)) and non-cognition or anupalabdhi (अनुपलब्धि)

Vedānta is the philosophy of the Vedas and holds great significance. It is the leading and principal tradition in the history of Indian philosophy. The influence of Vedantic thoughts are found not only in philosophical writings but also in various forms of literature, such as epics, poetry, drama etc.