Science & Technology
Evolution of Scientific Thoughts in Ancient India vis-à-vis Contemporary Science
In ancient times India occupied an esteemed and elevated position in the world. It was seen as an advanced civilisation with distinguished culture and rich knowledge of science and development of sublime and supreme literature. This prominent status is highlighted by the fact that the Vedic literature is the oldest literature known to man. Little wonder then, that ancient India was looked upon as a beacon by many troubled thinkers navigating through the ocean of knowledge in the pursuit and understanding of the ultimate reality.
The Comprehensive Vedic Knowledge
Vedas (वेद), as is considered traditionally, contain all kinds of knowledge. Almost every aspect of life has been mentioned in the Vedas and further elaborated in the subsequent corresponding scriptures. Vedic Saṁhitā (संहिता)/ Sūktas (सूक्त), in addition to other subjects, also contained the fundamentals of principles of physical sciences. Upaniṣad (उपनिषद्) elaborated these principles. Sūtra (सूत्र) or aphorisms condensed and systematized them in an abridged format which were subsequently elucidated in the form of Vārtikas (वार्तिक) and Bhāṣyas (भाष्य) or detailed commentaries.
Traditionally, knowledge or Jñāna (ज्ञान) is considered to be of two categories: learning or knowledge of lesser import or “secondary knowledge”, including that of Vedas, Śāstras (शास्त्र) and all the faculties of learning including humanities, social sciences and science and technology. This category was known as Aparā vidyā (अपरा विद्या) or Avidyā (अविद्या). Knowledge pertaining to metaphysical or spiritual domain was called as Parā vidyā (परा विद्या) or knowledge of highest purport. This is also known as knowledge of Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) or brahmajñāna (ब्रह्मज्ञान). In this context, it is important to understand that Avidyā does not mean lack of Vidyā. It means Vidyā or knowledge of lesser import. It will not be out of place to point out that many scholars consider Jñāna and Vijñāna (विज्ञान) same as Vidyā – Avidyā or Parā-Aparā. According to Vedic or Sanskrit scriptures, knowledge of every or any branch of subjects is Jñāna. The meaning of Vijñāna is “specialized knowledge” of any subject gained after applying proper discrimination and contemplation: etymologically विशिष्टं ज्ञानं विज्ञानम् (viśiṣṭaṃ jñānaṃ vijñānam). Therefore, Jñāna and Vijñāna are not the same as Vidyā – Avidyā or Aparā – Parā. It is also important to understand that in the Vedic period knowledge of any subject was referred to as Jñāna and a specialized knowledge of a particular subject was known as Vijñāna. In the Indian context, it is only in the last 100 years that the term Vijñāna became synonymous with Science.
A reference of the list of the various branches of science studied during the Vedic period is available in the Chāndogyopaniṣad (छान्दोग्योपनिषद्). Sage Nārada (नारदमुनि) approaches scholar sage Sanatkumāra (सनत्कुमार) with the intent of gaining spiritual knowledge, ātmajñāna (आत्मज्ञान) or brahmajñāna, which is also referred to as Parā vidyā.
Sanatkumāra asks Nārada which śāstras, subjects or sciences he has already studied. Nārada then replies:
This list enumerates various subjects of humanities, spirituality, social sciences, etc., which Nārada had learnt. Besides, Nārada had also learnt physics (bhūtavidyā, भूतविद्या), mathematics (rāśī, राशी), science of portents (daiva, दैव), science of treasures, mining, ores etc. (nidhi, निधि) , science of warfare (kṣatravidyā क्षत्रविद्या), astronomy (nakṣatravidyā, नक्षत्रविद्या), science related to serpents (sarpavidyā, सर्पविद्या), knowledge of making perfumes.
This Nārada episode in general indicates that during the Vedic period studies of physical sciences were common. To which extent these sciences had progressed at that time, and why the progress appears to have stopped in due course of time– is a matter of research. It is equally important to note the fact that the reference to brahmavidyā in this context is to denote that only after having treaded the path of all these branches of knowledge, Nārada approaches Sanatkumara to learn parā vidyā or brahmavidyā. Sanatkumāra, after listening to this long list, replies to Nārada that this whole knowledge relates to the nāmarūpa (नामरूप) i.e. Saguṇa (सगुण) Brahman, and knowledge of Brahman i.e. parā vidyā is beyond what Nārada had studied till then.
In ancient times, knowledge was passed to the next generation in Sanskrit, preferably using a vocal mode. Oral knowledge transfer was favoured as rhymes are easy to recite, remember, and recall. One Sanskrit word has various meanings and the actual meaning depends on the context that it is used in, and in case of recitation of vedas, on the proper accentuation. . In this peculiar poetic style, authors used different words to denote different ideas and composed verses in standard matrices. In some specific compositions numbers were presented by a symbolic word, like ākāśa (आकाश) or kha (ख) represented one, because ākāśa is only one, akṣi (अक्षि) for two, since akṣi or eyes are two; guṇa (गुण) for three, as there are three guṇas or attributes, and so on.
The Science of the Sūtra Period
Several scriptures related to the period known as ‘Sūtra Period’ (800 BCE-100 CE) have been discovered which clearly show that ancient Indians had the knowledge of various concepts and principles related to chemistry, physics and metallurgy. They also had the knowledge of conducting experiments or procedures which were necessary to establish the principles related to the branches of science mentioned above. From the Sūtra period to the present times, Indian philosophy has been elaborated by commentaries, explanations, annotations, notes, etc. through various texts. However, the progress in producing the texts on material sciences such as astronomy, biology, chemistry, metallurgy, anatomy, medicine, civil engineering, mathematics etc. which was prevalent until the 12th century CE, is not evident in later centuries. Perhaps, there were some genuine and some plausible reasons for this state of affairs to have perpetuated for a long time. (Also refer to Science and Technology Journey.)
Recently discovered treatises ascribed to Maharṣi Bharadvāja (महर्षि भरद्वाज) – Amśubodhinī (अंशुबोधिनी), Yantrasarvasva (यन्त्रसर्वस्व), Vaimānikaprakaraṇa (वैमानिक प्रकरण), etc., comprise some fundamental concepts about cosmology, aeronautics, particle physics, information regarding tools and apparatuses which were being used in astronomical researches and experiments in ancient times. Different alloys and materials, as well as the technology of gunning down a fighter plane find mention in these scriptures . It has now become clear that the original Sāṅkhya system pioneered by Kapilamuni (कपिलमुनि) contained a detailed account of cosmology. Vaiśeṣika school was, perhaps, the first in the world to consider the universe scientifically with an empirical approach. According to most recent interpretation, it was brought to light that the Vaiśeṣika school dealt with the basic units of mass, length and time (M,L,T), force, velocity and the laws of motion, their measurements, etc., which form the requisite fundamental principles of physical sciences. It also covered the anatomical studies of how human senses of perception receive information from external sources. Additionally, one must note that even Vedānta darśana (वेदांत दर्शन) does not disfavour physical studies of the perceptible world. Vedānta recognizes this as the studies of reality at vyāvahārika sattā (व्यावहारिक सत्ता) i.e. the perceived reality at phenomenal level.
The Contemporary Situation – Requirement for an Unbiased View
A general view prevalent in the West, which is also supported blindly by many amongst the Indian intelligentsia is that ancient Indian thought was restricted only to the metaphysical domain and that it was not only far removed from but also ignorant of the physical sciences.
The decipherment of the ancient available scriptures in new light by scientists and scholars, as also the recent discovery of some very obscure texts reveal that the purport of Indian scriptures was not confined only to the metaphysical domain. It is now known that ancient Indians also studied several physical sciences. From fifth century BCE, the influence of the all-inclusive Vedic thoughts declined due to the widespread impact of Buddhism. The Vedic scholars realized that there was an urgent need to re-establish Vedic ethos. They wholeheartedly and resolutely embarked on asserting and re-establishing Vedic thoughts. The key figure in this endeavour was Ādi Śaṅkarācārya (आदि शङ्कराचार्य, ~ 800 CE). However, the efforts of this enterprise were entirely directed towards emphasis on the metaphysical interpretation of Vedic concepts. Thus, interpretations with respect to the physical world and related sciences, especially of the Sāṅkhya (सांख्य) and Vaiśeṣika (वैशेषिक) systems, took a back seat. Nonetheless, a worthy facet of this resurgence of Vedic thoughts needs special mention: all the schools of philosophy were neither distant nor against the study of physical sciences.
In contemporary times, further research into the scientific interpretation of ancient scriptures is facing two challenges. On one hand, Sanskrit scholars of the modern era were strongly opposed to interpreting Vedic concepts in any manner other than sprituality, religion or rites and rituals, whereas the contemporary Indian scientists had decided that Vedic thought did not manifest any scientific or technological knowledge. In such a contrary and adverse atmosphere some Indian scientists were struggling to prove that Vedic concepts were full of scientific and technological import. Indian scientists familiar with the developments and discoveries of science in the western world and who are also scholars of Vedic studies, have proved with conclusive evidence that ancient scriptures contain many concepts of pure sciences related to mathematics, cosmology, cosmogony and astrophysics, particle physics, atomic science and applied sciences. Several of these concepts corroborate principles of classical physics, astronomy, and mathematics as we know them today.
Physics and Philosophy – a Need for Synthesis
Physics and philosophy complement each other. Physics seeks to investigate and reveal the secrets of Nature in a systematic and logical manner. However, they remain mazes, until such time as philosophy and allied literature bring focus. Philosophy, in general, proposes a hypothesis to solve the mazes in an abstract manner. Laboratory verifications are difficult and proving tangible results is challenging in many cases. Therefore, the same sets of mazes may have wide number of hypotheses as probable solutions. These differing approaches and ideas give rise to numerous philosophical schools of thought. A dawn might come when all these philosophical hypotheses are subjected to test by laboratory experiments on the basis of the discovery of a methodology to handle even the metaphysical cognitive quantities as simply as other physical quantities. Thus, to perceive physics in its totality, a philosophical view is necessary, and for perfection in philosophy, a scientific view is essential.
Dynamic Science and Validity of Historical Concepts
The history of mankind is punctuated by it’s changing outlooks – political, social, and even scientific. A particular period in history is dominated by certain perspectives which influence the thinking and social structure of communities. In science too, prevalent theories are challenged with aberrations or anomalies from new observations and data. The new theory or observation gets accepted with the progression in ideas and concepts, only to be questioned with fresh perspectives and new data by future generations. No theory is final. It is essential that from time to time scientific theories be examined in light of their merits and shortcomings. Since recent times, science is evolving rapidly with the development of technology and connectivity. This does not indicate that historical theories of science are entirely redundant. A particular work, concept or idea might provide solutions or clues for solutions to genuine problems and methods of research to future generations of scientists. It is interesting to observe that the fundamental principles established by today’s scientists had already been stated no less profoundly by the scholars of ancient India. If their concepts are studied with the help of contemporary mathematics and modern scientific instruments, new avenues may open up for further scientific research.
Recommended for further studies:
The concepts presented in this section are based on Maharṣi Kaṇāda’s (महर्षि कणाद) Vaiśeṣikaśāstra (वैशेषिकशास्त्र) ~600 BCE and its available commentaries – the Praśastapādabhāṣya (प्रशस्तपादभाष्य) or Padārthadharmasaṃgraha (पदार्थधर्मसंग्रह) by Praśastapāda (530 CE), Nyāyakandalī (न्यायकन्दली), a 10th c. CE commentary on praśastapādabhāṣya by Śrīdhara (श्रीधर), Bhāṣāpariccheda (भाषापरिच्छेद), also known as Kārikāvalī (कारिकावली), by Viśvanātha Nyāyapañcānana (विश्वनाथ न्यायपञ्चानन) –1634 CE, Kiraṇāvalī (किरणावली) by Udayanācārya (उदयनाचार्य) ~10th c. CE, a commentary on the Padārthadharmasaṃgraha. Treatises on technology and mathematics such as Amśubodhinīśāstra (अम्शुबोधिनीशास्त्र), Yantrasarvasva (यन्त्रसर्वस्व) and Vaimānikaprakaraṇa (वैमानिक प्रकरण) by Maharṣi Bharadvāja (महर्षि भरद्वाज) ~ 400 BCE – 200 CE, Bhāskarācārya’s (भास्कराचार्य) Lilāvatī (लीलावती) 1114 CE – 1185 CE and treatise on astronomy Sūryasiddhānta (सूर्यसिद्धान्त) ~ 400 CE. Understanding Reality by Shashikant Shukla.
We have also discussed very succintly the most significant scientific concepts, mentioned in the ancient treatises, such as cosmology and cosmogony, fundamental physical quantities, Newton’s laws of motion (karma, (कर्म), the atomic theory, Tyndall effect, Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, different types of force (saṁskāra, संस्कार), wave aspect (śabda, शब्द), among many others.